中国经济管理大学-中國經濟管理大學

中國經濟管理大學[防貪錦囊]-學校管治及內部監控

Fri, 31 Jul 2026 13:49:21 +0800

中国经济管理大学 

中國經濟管理大學[防貪錦囊]-學校管治及內部監控

中国经济管理大学/中國經濟管理大學

学校管治与内部监控

1. 前言

2. 目录

3. 第一章学校管治

4. 第二章诚信管理

5. 第三章内部监控

6. 第四章采购

7. 第五章商业活动

8. 第六章人事管理

9. 第七章取录学生

10. 第八章筹款、捐赠与赞助

11. 第九章校舍维修

附录一学校校董纪律守则范本

附录二学校职员纪律守则范本

附录三家长教师会纪律守则范本

附录四利益冲突申报表范本

附录五采购申请单

附录六零用现金补充表格

附录七招标文件中的诚信条款范本

附录八反围标条款范本

附录九服务合约中的诚信条款范本

附录十聘任教职员的面试评核表格范本

附录十一表现评核表格范本

附录十二晋升现职教师的面试评核表格范本

附录十三（图片内未展示完整标题）

中国经济管理大学防貪錦囊-學校管治及內部監控.pdf

中国经济管理大学学校校董纪律守则范本(由廉政公署提供).pdf

教师专业操守指引.pdf

提升私立学校治理水平　共同打造香港优质教育品牌

教育局副秘书长李碧茜

　　香港的教育质素一直备受国际肯定，我们的教育体系以多元优质和兼容并蓄享誉国际。这除反映政府对教育的长远承担和大力投资外，亦显示学界致力推动优质教育，为不同能力、背景的学生提供丰富多采的学习经历，为香港育才、引才。

　　政府一直支持多元办学，除公帑资助学校外，家长亦可按需要为其子女选择入读提供正规课程的私立学校（包括国际学校）。私立学校是香港教育制度的一部分。有别于公帑资助学校，私立学校提供本地及／或非本地中小学正规课程，并以自负盈亏的模式运作，在授课语言、课程安排、公开考试选择等方面享有弹性。尽管如此，所有私立学校均须按《教育条例》、《教育规例》、其他相关法例，以及教育局不时发出的指引合规办学。

制定实务守则　确保合规办学

　　为进一步巩固香港教育的国际竞争力，促进教育事业更高质量、可持续的发展，今日教育局公布《私立学校实务守则》（下称《守则》）。《守则》整合了适用于私立学校的《教育条例》、《教育规例》及其他适用的指引，就私立学校的学校管理、学校财务、人事管理、校舍及安全、学与教及学生事务各范畴提供清晰、实用的管理及营运指引，以确保学校在稳健的管治架构下运作，持续提升教育质素与管理水平。

　　教育局编订《守则》时，已充分考虑私立学校以市场模式运作下，因应其独特情况，在管理、课程等安排上所需的灵活性和自由度，以应对不断变化的社会环境及学生的学习需要，同时教育局须回应社会对监管私立学校的迫切期望，理解家长对私立学校教育服务的关注日益增加。

　　《守则》将有助确保学校的管理令人满意，保障学生福祉和家长的利益。事实上，现时大部分私立学校均遵照现行规定营办，相信《守则》发布后亦如是，惟《守则》可提供有效规范，防止少数害群之马影响香港优质教育制度的声誉，教育局如发现学校有任何违规情况，定必严肃跟进，依法处理。

业界代表反馈正面

　　教育局早前向私立学校业界代表简介《守则》的内容，他们均积极回应，对《守则》表示欢迎，认同业界合规营办及持续完善校本政策，有助提升办学质素。

中国经济管理大学

中国经济管理大学官网：www.eauc.hk 中国经济管理大学 MBA公益课堂

中国经济管理大学 MOOC（慕课站）美华管理传播网：www.mhjy.net

中国经济管理大学 MBA课堂笔记：菲利普科特勒《市场营销原理与实践》：定价：理解和获得顾客价值

Mon, 06 Jul 2026 14:35:28 +0800

菲利普科特勒《市场营销原理与实践》全新版

定价：理解和获得顾客价值

直复、网络、社交媒体和移动营销

中国经济管理大学/中國經濟管理大學

定价：理解和获得顾客价值

引例

亚马逊对阵沃尔玛：为争夺网上霸权的价格战

概要

不到十年前，没有人认为亚马逊有一天会给沃尔玛带来麻烦。但如今，亚马逊是一家年营收达1070亿美元的公司。然而，沃尔玛的销售额是亚马逊的4.5倍，达到4820亿美元。然而，亚马逊在过去四年里的收益每年以20%甚至更快的速度迅猛，而沃尔玛在同一时期的增长基本持平。亚马逊已经在削减沃尔玛的销售额。而且，如果这种速度持续下去，亚马逊可能最终会取代零售业之王的宝座。战争的中心是价格。虽然在这场猫捉老鼠的游戏中，低价可能最终宣布赢家，但双方也需要特别小心，以免做得过火。不计后果的降价对两家公司来说弊大于利。在这个过程中，两家公司都在努力寻找其他方法来超越对方，比如个性化服务和送货选项。亚马逊似乎在这一领域占了上风，但沃尔玛通过大力投资其配送网络，并将其线上和线下运营的优势结合起来，取得了长足进展。胜利者将不得不做的不仅仅是提供最低的价格。选择、方便和购买体验将是赢得网上销售的关键。

讨论目标

用10分钟的时间对开篇的亚马逊对阵沃尔玛的故事进行重点讨论，会让学生们明白，一个合适的价格/价值等式会让顾客感到真实，并产生强劲的销售和利润。沃尔玛和亚马逊都非常注重价格来吸引顾客。然而，这两家公司在如何利用定价为顾客提供价值方面并不相同。沃尔玛推出的“天天低价”的口号是“省钱，生活更美好”。亚马逊网站不仅提供产品的价格信息，还提供产品信息、购买后的产品评论和替代产品解决方案。由于人们定义价值的方式不同，这两家公司设计了针对目标顾客的方法，并利用了这些差异。

开始讨论

首先问学生们对亚马逊和沃尔玛了解多少，以及他们与这两家巨头的经历与开场故事的描述如何契合。接下来，通过访问他们的网站www.amazon.com和www.walmart.com，让学生对每个公司有一个感受。你也可以在www.YouTube.com上输入公司名称，然后查看他们的一些视频。一旦你掌握了每家公司线上体验的精髓，你就可以探索两家公司之间的竞争。

讨论问题

对亚马逊和沃尔玛来说，更重要的是拥有更低的价格，还是感知更低的价格?(正如杰克·特劳特著名的名言所说:“没有最好的产品。”在市场营销的世界中存在的一切都是顾客或潜在顾客头脑中的感知。感知就是现实。其他一切都是幻觉。在很大程度上，这是正确的。虽然在某种程度上现实和感知之间存在关联，但消费者不会根据与他们的感知不相符的现实做出决定。
亚马逊和沃尔玛都采用了什么定价策略?他们使用相同的吗?他们的策略在哪些方面匹配，在哪些方面不同?在讨论亚马逊和沃尔玛的定价策略时，请查看图10.1和10.2。(在为这些公司定价时，产品成本是否比消费者对价值的认知更重要?或者不是呢?请解释以下。)

3. 在争夺网络主导地位的战斗中，低价到底有多重要?亚马逊和沃尔玛各自带来的其他好处有多重要?(在今天这个购物应用程序支持价格购物的世界里，拥有最低的价格似乎是必不可少的。然而，零售业目前的趋势是提供全方位的选择，并提供从任何一种到另一种的无缝过渡。正如该案例所指出的，沃尔玛在开发和提供更多购买(和退货)产品的方式方面具有优势，因为它的门店遍布各地。如果沃尔玛能在每个门店都开发出可靠的送货服务，它就能承诺当天送货，这是亚马逊一直无法做到的。然而，亚马逊拥有无穷无尽的库存和可以在创纪录的时间内挑选、包装和运输产品的物流系统。此外，它与UPS等物流公司的关系要牢固得多，并建立了一个无缝流程，包裹从其配送中心直接转运到UPS的飞机上。)

概览

成功地通过其他营销组合活动创造顾客价值的公司必须在他们得到的价格中抓住这种价值。

本章阐述了定价的重要性，探讨了三种主要的定价策略，以及影响定价决策的内部和外部因素。

如今，企业面临着激烈而快速变化的定价环境。寻求价值的顾客给许多公司带来了更大的定价压力。然而，降价往往不是最好的解决办法。无论经济状况如何，公司应该出售价值，而不是价格。

目标

1. 回答“什么是价格”，价格在如今快速变化的环境中有何重要性。

2. 识别三种主要的定价策略，并讨论在定价时理解顾客价值感知、公司成本和竞争对手战略的重要性。

3. 识别和定义影响公司定价决策的其他内外部因素。

讲义

导入

不到15年前，没有人认为亚马逊有一天会给沃尔玛带来麻烦。如今，亚马逊是一家年营收达1070亿美元的公司。沃尔玛仍以4820亿美元的价格领先约4.5倍。

但考虑到亚马逊一直在以两位数的速度增长——过去四年里每年增长20%。另一方面，沃尔玛的同期增长则持平。亚马逊已经在削减沃尔玛的销售额。如果这种速度持续下去，亚马逊可能最终会取代沃尔玛“零售业之王”的宝座。

战争的中心是价格。虽然在这场猫捉老鼠的游戏中，低价可能最终宣布获胜，但双方也需要特别小心，以免做得过火。不计后果的降价对两家公司来说弊大于利。

在这个过程中，两家公司都在努力寻找其他方法来超越对方，比如个性化服务和送货选项。亚马逊似乎在这一领域占了上风，但沃尔玛通过大力投资其运输网络，并将其线上和线下运营的优势结合起来，取得了长足进展。胜利者将不得不做的不仅仅是提供最低的价格。选择、方便和购买体验将是赢得线上销售的关键。

Ø 开场问题

1. 对亚马逊和沃尔玛来说，更低的价格和更低的价格感知哪个更重要?

2. 这两家公司使用什么定价策略?他们使用的策略是相同的吗?为什么或为什么不?

3.在争夺线上主导地位的战斗中，低价到底有多重要?亚马逊和沃尔玛各自带来的其他好处有多重要?

“什么是价格”，价格在如今快速变化的环境中有何重要性。

什么是价格？

狭义上说，价格（price）是为产品或服务收取的货币总额。

广义上说，价格是顾客为获得、拥有或使用某种产品或服务的利益而支付的价值。

定价是营销组合中唯一创造收益的要素。

定价是最灵活的市场营销要素之一。

回顾学习目标1：回答“什么是价格”，价格在如今快速变化的环境中有何重要性。

识别三种主要的定价策略，并讨论在定价时理解顾客价值感知、公司成本和竞争对手战略的重要性。

主要的定价战略

图10.1 总结了制定价格需要考虑的主要因素。

基于顾客价值的定价

产品价格是否合适，最终由顾客决定。

基于顾客价值的定价（customer value-based pricing）运用顾客的价值感知，而不是卖方的成本，作为定价的关键，

在制定市场营销方案之前，市场营销者就应该全面考虑营销组合变量，包括定价。

以成本为基础的定价通常是产品导向的。

基于价值的定价方法与以上过程截然相反。公司首先评价顾客的需要和价值感知，然后根据顾客的感知价值制定目标价格。

两种基于价值的定价方法是高价值定价和价值增值定价。

高价值定价（good-value pricing）战略是以公平的价格提供优质产品和服务的恰当组合。

天天低价指日常的价格很低，但很少或没有临时的价格折扣。

高低定价（high-low pricing）指平常收取较高的价格，但是经常选择性地对某些产品暂时低价促销。

价值增值定价

价值增值定价（value-added pricing）战略是通过增添提高价值的属性和服务，使产品或服务差异化，进而维持高于平均水平的价格。

基于成本的定价

基于成本的定价（cost-based pricing）指在生产、分销和销售产品的成本基础上，加上目标回报率来制定价格。成本是公司定价战略中的重要因素。

成本类型

固定成本（fixed cost）是不随产量或销售量的变化而变化的成本。

变动成本（variable cost）指随着生产水平而直接变化的成本。之所以称作变动成本，是因为它们的总量随着产量而变化。

总成本（total cost）是一定生产水平下固定成本与变动成本的总和。

不同生产水平下的成本

为了明智地定价，管理者必须清楚公司在不同生产水平下的成本情况。

图10-3（a）表示典型的短期平均成本曲线（SRAC）。

图10-3（a）表示长期平均成本曲线（LRAC）。

生产经验与成本函数

随着不断积累的生产经验，平均成本下降，示意图如图10-4 所示。随着生产经验积累，平均成本不断下降，这种现象称作经验曲线（experience curve，或者学习曲线（learning curve））。

一心一意地致力于降低成本和利用经验曲线并不总能生效。不断降价可能在市场上造成产品廉价的形象。

最后，当公司在一种技术下增加产量，即按传统经验曲线经营时，竞争者可能找到成本更低的技术，并借此以更低的价格进入市场。

成本加成定价

成本加成定价（cost-plus pricing）或者加成定价（markup pricing）是最简单的定价方法，指在产品成本上加一个标准的加成。

成本加成定价有效吗？一般来说无效。

成本加成定价由于一些原因仍然受到欢迎：

1. 与需求相比，卖者对成本信息更有把握。

2. 如果行业中所有的企业都运用这一定价方法的话，市场价格会倾向于一致，价格竞争的可能性最小。

3. 许多人感到成本加成定价对买者和卖者都更加公平。

盈亏平衡分析和目标利润定价

另一种成本导向的定价方法是盈亏平衡定价法（break-even pricing），或者一种称为目标利润定价法（target return pricing）的变化形式。企业试图找到使其盈亏平衡或者在制造和营销产品的成本基础上实现期望回报目标的价格。

目标利润定价法运用了盈亏平衡图的概念，反映不同销售量水平下总成本与总收益的关系。图10-5 是前面讨论的那家烤面包机制造商的盈亏平衡图。

制造商应该考虑不同的价格，估计不同价格下的盈亏平衡产量、可能的需求量和利润水平，如表10-1 所示。

Ø 作业，资源

基于竞争的定价（competition-based pricing）涉及根据竞争者的战略、成本、价格，以及产品和服务制定价格。

消费者往往根据竞争性产品的价格来判断一种产品的价值。

无论你制定什么价格——高、低或者适中——务必在这个价格水平上为顾客提供更多的价值。

回顾学习目标2：识别三种主要的定价策略，并讨论在定价时理解顾客价值感知、公司成本和竞争对手战略的重要性。

识别和定义影响公司定价决策的其他内外部因素。

影响定价决策的其他内外部因素

整体市场营销战略、营销目标和营销组合

公司在制定价格之前，必须为产品或服务确定其整体市场营销战略。定价策略很大程度上是由市场定位决定的。

价格只是公司用来实现其营销目标的营销组合工具中的一种。

定价决策应该与产品设计、分销和促销决策相互协调，形成一致而有效的整体营销方案。

公司常常根据价格为产品定位，然后设计其他市场营销组合策略。

目标成本法先确定一个以顾客感知价值为基础的理想售价，然后以与价格相匹配为目标确定成本。

一些公司不那么强调价格，而是运用其他市场营销组合工具来建立非价格定位。

组织因素

在小公司里，价格常常由最高管理层而非营销或销售部门决定。

在大公司里，定价工作通常由分部经理或产品经理负责。

在组织市场中，销售人员有权在一定的价格范围内与顾客协商价格。

在那些定价是关键要素的行业（如航空、钢铁、铁路、石油），公司往往设立专门的定价部门来制定最佳价格，或者帮助其他部门制定价格。

市场和需求

不同市场类型中的定价

完全竞争：市场中有众多的买者和卖者，他们交换同质的商品。单个买者或卖者都不能对流行的市场价格产生影响。

在完全竞争的市场中，市场营销研究、产品开发、定价广告和促销几乎不起作用。所以，在这样的市场中，卖者不会在市场营销战略上花费多少时间。

垄断竞争：市场由许多按不同价格而非单一价格交易的买者和卖者构成。之所以存在多种价格，是因为卖者可以使其为买者提供的产品或服务差异化。由于存在众多竞争者，每一家企业受竞争者价格策略影响的程度低于寡头市场。

寡头竞争：市场上只有少数大型卖者，每一个卖者都对竞争对手的定价策略高度警觉和迅速反应。

因为新卖者很难进入市场，市场上的卖家很少。

完全垄断：市场上只有一个卖者。它可能是政府垄断、私有限制性垄断或私有非限制性垄断。

分析价格 - 需求关系

企业设定的价格与其导致的需求水平之间的关系可以用需求曲线来表示（见图10-6）。

在正常的情况下，需求和价格呈反向关系；也就是说，价格越高，需求量越低。

在垄断市场中，需求曲线表示不同价格造成不同的市场总需求量。

如果公司存在竞争对手，不同价格水平上的需求量，将受到竞争者价格变动的影响。

需求的价格弹性

需求价格弹性（price elasticity）即需求对价格变化的反应。

如果价格小幅的变化几乎没有引起需求变动，我们说需求是缺乏弹性的；如果需求变动很大，就说需求是富有弹性的。

当他们购买的产品是独一无二的，或者是高质量、高声望或高排他性的时候；当替代品很难找到或无法轻易比较替代品的质量时;当一种产品的总支出相对于他们的收入较低，或者成本由另一方分担时，购买者对价格就不那么敏感。

如果需求富有弹性，卖者会考虑降低售价。较低的价格能够产生更高的总收益。

经济条件

经济条件对企业的定价策略有强烈的影响。

诸如繁荣或衰退、通货膨胀和利率等经济因素之所以会影响定价决策，是因为它们既影响消费者对产品价格和价值的感知，也影响产品的制造成本。

在经济衰退之后，许多消费者重新思考价格-价值等式。

其他外部因素

企业还必须考虑了解其价格可能对其他环境力量产生的影响，例如中间商和政府。

公司还需要考虑社会舆论。

回顾学习目标3：识别和定义影响公司定价决策的其他内外部因素。

讨论问题

10-1 为什么制定和执行恰当的定价决策对企业的成功至关重要？(AACSB:沟通)

答案：

定价是营销组合中唯一与收益直接相关的要素；其他营销组合要素都意味着成本。定价还是最灵活的市场营销要素之一。与产品特征和渠道投入不同，公司可以迅速地改变价格。但制定合适的价格却是许多营销经理遇到的最重要而且最棘手的问题，不少公司无法妥善地处理定价问题。

但是，明智的管理者将定价视为创造和获得顾客价值的重要工具。价格直接影响着公司的底线。价格很小比例的提升都可能大幅增加盈利。更重要的是，作为公司整体价值主张的一部分，价格在创造顾客价值和建立顾客关系中发挥着关键作用。因此，精明的营销人员不再回避定价，而是将其视为一项重要的竞争资产。

µ 10-2 说出并解释两种类型的基于价值的定价方法。(AACSB:沟通)

答案：学生的回答会根据个人的反应而有所不同。请参考MyLab，从而更好地分配此问题，请将所有带星号标记的MyLab问题分配给学生讨论。

10-3 什么是基于成本的定价？企业在基于成本的定价模式中如何运用固定成本和变动成本？(AACSB:沟通)

答案：

基于成本的定价（cost-based pricing）指在生产、分销和销售产品的成本基础上，加上目标回报率来制定价格。成本是公司定价战略中的重要因素。

公司的成本有两种形式。固定成本（f ixed cost）是不随产量或销售量的变化而变化的成本。例如，不论产出水平如何，公司都必须每月支付租金、能源费用、利息和工资。变动成本（variable cost）指随着生产水平而直接变化的成本。三星生产的每台个人电脑都包括芯片、电线、塑料、包装和其他投入。对于企业所生产的每件产品而言，这些成本是相同的，之所以称作变动成本，是因为它们的总量随着产量而变化。总成本（total cost）是一定生产水平下固定成本与变动成本的总和。

µ 10-4 解释价格-需求关系。卖者在不同类型的市场中设定价格时需要考虑哪些因素？(AACSB:沟通)

答案：学生的回答会根据个人的反应而有所不同。请参考MyLab，从而更好地分配此问题，请将所有带星号标记的MyLab问题分配给学生讨论。

10-5 定义需求价格弹性，并解释为什么对市场营销者而言理解这一概念很重要。(AACSB:沟通；反思性思考)

答案：

市场营销者还需要了解需求价格弹性（price elasticity），即需求对价格变化的反应。如果价格小幅的变化几乎没有引起需求变动，我们说需求是缺乏弹性的；如果需求变动很大，就说需求是富有弹性的。如果需求富有弹性，卖者会考虑降低售价，因为此时较低的价格能够产生更大的销售量，从而获得更高的总收益。只要生产和销售更多产品的额外成本不会超过增加的收益，这一做法就是可取的。同时，大多数公司希望避免将自己的产品变成同质商品的定价。

批判性思考练习

µ 10-6 恭喜你!你刚中了州彩票，将得到一张一百万美元的支票。你一直想拥有自己的生意，并且注意到当地食品运输车数量的增加。一辆带有厨房和相关设备的新型餐车耗资约10万美元。其他固定成本包括工资、卡车汽油和执照费用，估计每年约为5万美元。你决定提供传统的地中海美食。可变成本包括食物和饮料，估计每盘6美元(肉、大米、蔬菜和皮塔饼)。每餐价格为10美元。计算一下你的餐车生意的盈亏平衡点。在回顾你的盈亏平衡点后，你会考虑做出哪些改变?你想这样花掉你的彩票奖金吗?(AACSB:沟通;反思性思考)

答案：学生的回答会根据个人的反应而有所不同。请参考MyLab，从而更好地分配此问题，请将所有带星号标记的MyLab问题分配给学生讨论。

10-7 在小组中讨论你对价值的看法，以及你愿意为以下产品支付多少钱：汽车、冷冻食品、牛仔裤和运动鞋。你的团队成员之间有什么不同吗? 解释这些差异存在的原因。讨论一些定位于为消费者提供不同的价值的产品品牌例子。(AACSB:沟通; 反思性思考)

答案：

学生的反应会有所不同。不同的背景，对产品的不同熟悉程度会影响学生对价值的感受。由于消费者对价值的认知不同，学生的反应也会不同。例如，一些消费者认为运动鞋是不穿正装配鞋或凉鞋时穿的鞋子，不会花50美元以上买一双运动鞋。斯凯奇(Skechers)可能就是为消费者提供这种价值水平的品牌的一个例子。然而，一些人看到了为特定运动而设计的鞋子的价值，愿意花100多美元买一双。耐克(Nike)、新百伦(New Balance)和亚瑟士(Asics)可以成为向消费者传递这种价值的品牌。其他人可能看到一些运动鞋的时尚价值，愿意支付更高的价格。彪马和K-Swiss就是可能向消费者传递这种价值的品牌。

10-8 你们公司开发了一种新的减肥早餐奶昔，在市场测试阶段被证明是成功的。使用者的体重平均每周减轻两磅。你拥有这个产品的专利。这种奶昔的生产成本相对较低，总制造成本约为每盎司0.05美元。每份奶昔是8盎司。这个产品你有什么价格策略推荐吗?(AACSB:沟通;运用信息技术;反思性思考)

答案：

学生可以选择三种主要的定价策略:基于顾客价值的定价、基于成本的定价和基于竞争的定价。基于顾客价值的定价是利用购买者对价值的感知作为定价的基础。如果购买者相信体重会下降，那么更高的价格是合理的。基于成本的定价指的是根据生产、分销和销售产品的成本基础上，加上目标回报率来定价。每盎司0.05美元的成本，3美元的价格可能有利可图。基于竞争的定价是指根据竞争对手的战略、成本、价格以及产品和服务来定价。每份减肥奶昔的价格从2美元到5美元不等。学生们需要考虑的是，减肥奶昔可能会与食物替代品和早餐奶昔相竞争。

一个重要的考虑是，该产品有专利，可能涉及大量的研究和开发。这将导致更高的价格，以弥补一些研发成本。

应用和案例

网络，移动和社交媒体营销：在线价格追踪

你看上了三星新款32英寸电视了?好吧，你最好不要在12月购买它——那是亚马逊网站上价格最高的时候(在11月是500美元，而在2月是400美元)。大多数消费者都知道价格全年都在波动，但你知道甚至每小时价格都在波动吗?你可能无法追踪，但有一个应用可以。Camelcamelcamel是一个跟踪亚马逊为消费者提供的价格的工具，当价格达到最佳价位时，它会发出提醒。这个应用程序允许用户导入整个亚马逊的愿望清单，并设置想要的价格水平，然后通过电子邮件或推特通知他们价格。所有这些都是免费的。Camel从一个不太可能的合作伙伴亚马逊那里赚钱——亚马逊直接向骆驼提供价格数据。Camel是亚马逊下属项目的成员，它每介绍一位顾客，就能获得8.5%的销售额。看起来，亚马逊希望顾客在价格更高而不是更低的时候购买。但这家网络巨头认为，这是一种方式，既能让喜欢买便宜货的人高兴，又能从对价格不太敏感的顾客那里获得更多利润。这是对亚马逊早期定价策略的改进，之前的定价策略是根据不同顾客的购买行为收取不同的价格。

<CORE>10-9</CORE><ALT1>10.</ALT1> 登陆www.camelcamelcamel.com，注册一个免费账户。追踪10个你感兴趣的产品。这些产品有达到你想要的价格吗?写一份关于这类应用对消费者有用性的报告。(AACSB:沟通;运用信息技术)

答案：

学生们会发现，他们可以追踪的产品范围很广。他们将看到他们可以创建价格观察表，并找出哪些产品最近的价格下降过。对于任何产品，都会提供显示价格趋势的信息。学生的反应会因他们所跟踪的产品和所发送的期望价格而有所不同。将期望的价格设置得太低将不会产生警报。教师可能希望将产品分配给学生，并让他们在一段时间内追踪价格，最好比一般任务的时间更长。

<CORE>10-10 </CORE><ALT1>11.</ALT1>Camel并不是唯一的亚马逊追踪或在线价格跟踪应用。为消费者找到并描述另一个在线价格追踪工具的例子。(AACSB:沟通;运用信息技术)

回答：

学生的答案会有所不同。简单地搜索“在线价格追踪”就会看到其他价格追踪网站的链接，以及评价一些追踪应用的文章。亚马逊还有其他价格跟踪应用(参见www.dealdump.com/article/amazon_price_tracking_tools)，比如The Tracktor、SlickDeals、PriceZombie、Keepa和Camel。除了亚马逊，追踪其他网站的服务是NIFTI (www.nifti.com/)，它还提供“NIFTI精选”的近期降价商品。

营销伦理：生命的成本

当所爱的人病入膏肓时，家人愿意支付多少钱来让他们重获健康?2015年，图灵制药公司从另一家制药公司购买了一种现有的药物——达拉匹林(daraprim)，由此陷入了争议之中。达拉匹林已经存在了62年，被用来治疗致命的艾滋病和癌症患者的寄生虫感染。收购达拉匹林后，图灵制药公司首席执行官马丁·史克雷利迅速将其价格从之前的每片13.50美元提高到750美元。据CNN财经报道，首席执行官Shkreli表示，“我们需要让这种药物盈利。”他补充说，公司将利用这些利润研究更好的治疗疾病的方法。

<CORE>10-11</CORE><ALT1>12.</ALT1> 研究达拉匹林的定价问题。图灵制药对这种药物收取如此高的价格是错误的吗?支持你的立场。(AACSB:沟通;道德推理)

答案：

大多数学生会认为，一种救命药物如此大幅度的涨价是不可原谅的，也很难证明其合理性。然而，其他人可能采取的立场，图灵制药是最大化利润和履行公司对股东的责任。首席执行官还表示，公司正在利用这些利润进行研究和开发，以发现治疗这种危及生命的疾病和其他疾病的新的更好的治疗方法。相关更多信息，请参见

www.nytimes.com/2015/07/23/business/drug-companies-pushed-from-far-and-wide-to-explain-high-prices.html?_r = 0和www.economist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2015/06/pharmaceutical-pricing。

<CORE>10-12</CORE><ALT1>13.</ALT1> 根据一篇哈佛商业评论文章(见www.hbr.org/2015/09/its-time-to-rein-in-exorbitant -pharmaceutical-prices),在过去的五年中，标普药物精选行业指数的回报几乎已经是标普500指数(每年约24%和12%)的两倍。是什么因素影响制药行业的盈利能力?高利润水平是好事还是坏事?解释一下。

答案：

美国制药业历来是美国最赚钱的行业之一。在许多其他行业，这样的成功会受到尊敬。然而，制药公司长期以来一直被批评以牺牲有健康问题的人为代价来创造利润。

有几个因素导致了竞争的复杂性，影响了制药行业的定价和盈利能力。

据《华盛顿邮报》报道，2015年，几乎所有种类的处方药价格都上涨了10.9%。
大多数国家控制着药品价格，但美国没有。美国人的平均支出是其他发达国家消费者的两到五倍。

3. 制药行业的竞争与许多其他行业不同。在大多数行业中，消费者选择他们购买的产品。然而，在制药行业，通常由医生选择消费者购买的产品。此外，许多患者与保险公司分担处方药的费用，保险公司可以影响消费者购买的产品。

通过数字看营销：昂贵的床单

许多奢侈品床单的制作成本不到200美元，但在零售店的售价超过500美元。有些衣服的价格甚至更高——消费者花近3000美元购买Frett’e的“Tangeri Pizzo”特大号豪华床单。一家名为Boll & Branch的新奢侈亚麻制品品牌的创始人已经进入了这个市场，他们正在决定在网上直接向消费者出售床单的价格。他们希望床单的价格低于大多数品牌，但仍希望获得足够的销售利润。床单被装在一个豪华的盒子里，可以用来存放内衣、珠宝或其他纪念品。Boll & Branch品牌在从印度采购高档长绒棉时，宣扬公平贸易的做法。鉴于以下成本信息，请参考附录2:按数字营销，回答以下问题。

		成本/特大号豪华床单
原棉		$28.00
纺丝/编织/染色		$12.00
切缝/完成		$10.00
材料运输		$ 3.00
工厂费用		$16.00
检验和进口费用		$14.00
海运费/保险		$ 5.00
仓库		$ 8.00
包装		$15.00
促销活动		$30.00
顾客运输		$15.00

<CORE>10-13</CORE><ALT1>14.</ALT1>考虑到上面所述的每张特大号床单的成本，并假设制造商的总固定成本为50万美元，预计第一年的销量将为5万套，如果公司希望销售利润率达到40%，请确定向消费者出售的价格。(AACSB:沟通;分析式推理)

答案：

基于成本的定价最简单的方法是成本加成定价(或加价定价)，即在产品成本上加一个标准加价。Boll & Branch必须明确预期的单位销售额，以便确定总单位成本。

每件产品的成本是：

单件成本 = 可变成本+ 固定成本/销量=$156 + $500,000/50,000 = $166

为了获得40%的销售利润，Boll & Branch的加价为:

加价 = 单件成本/(1-期望销售回报率) = $166/(1-0.4) = $166/0.6 = $276.67

<CORE>10-14</CORE><ALT1>15.</ALT1> 如果公司决定通过零售商而不是直接在线销售给消费者，为了保持你在上一个问题中计算的消费者价格，它必须以什么价格卖给批发商，然后批发商再卖给零售商?假设批发商想要10%的利润，而零售商想要20%的利润，两者都基于各自的销售价格。(AACSB:沟通;分析式推理)

答案：

通过减去加价链条中每一层的加价，产品零售价为276.67美元，制造商给批发商的价格为201.01美元。

建议零售价：	$276.67
减去零售商利润 (20%):	– $53.33
零售商的成本/批发商的价格：	$233.34
减去批发商的利润:	– $23.33
批发商的成本/制造商的价格:	$ 201.01

企业案例记录

乔氏超市：实惠的美食——对价格-价值等式进行的特殊修正

概要

乔氏超市独特的定价和价值战略使其成为美国增长最快、最受欢迎的食品店之一。乔氏超市明白，成功不仅来自你向顾客提供的产品或你收取的价格。它来源于提供产品和价格的结合，从而产生最大的顾客价值——即顾客从他们支付的价格中获得的价值。乔氏超市并不是一家真正的美食商店。而且，它也不是一家折扣店。两者都有一点。称之为“廉价的美食”。它提供美味的、便宜的美食，并在节日、假期般的氛围中提供，让购物变得有趣。乔氏超市只储备大约2000种特殊的产品。然而，这些产品都是独一无二的，包括精心包装的食品和酱汁、即食汤、新鲜和冷冻主菜、零食和甜点——所有这些都不含人工色素、香料和防腐剂。尽管如此，乔氏超市通过精益经营、近乎狂热地注重节约资金和非常低的广告支出来保持低价。不管你叫它什么，乔氏超市创造性的价格价值定位已经为它赢得了一群近乎狂热的忠实客户，他们喜欢他们支付的价格所得到的东西。

教学目标

本案例的教学目标是：

1. 让学生了解定价作为差异化工具的影响。

2. 帮助学生理解“价值”与价格之间的关系。

3. 使学生了解市场的性质和市场需求是如何影响定价决策的。

4. 让学生在实际公司的背景下研究不同的定价策略。

5. 让学生考虑定价策略的可持续性。

讨论问题

10-18 以基于顾客价值的定价理念解释乔氏超市成功的原因。
正如“高收益”和“低价格”部分所述，这个案例是建立在顾客感知价值的基础上的。基于顾客价值的定价被定义为“根据买者对价值的感知而不是卖者的成本来定价。”在这种定价策略下，卖者从一个给定商品的价格点开始，然后设计产品在这个价格点上盈利。这不同于从一个产品开始，计算出产品的销售成本，然后根据预期的利润率将成本提高。

本案例没有详细说明采用哪种方法(基于价值或基于成本)。然而，根据提供的信息，乔氏超市最有可能有一个基于价值的定价策略。他们已经确定了一个顾客喜爱的概念。他们出售美食、有机食品和整体独特的食品杂货——这类食品的价格较高。但他们的售价与普通杂货店的普通商品相当——有时甚至更低。通过这样做，他们确定了不仅是富人愿意支付的价格点，也是中上阶层家庭愿意支付的价格点。然后，他们施展魔力，以上述价格点生产商品。

10-19 乔氏超市采用高价值定价还是增值定价方法？请解释。
毫无疑问，这两种策略都会有学生争论。为了支持高价值定价的理由，乔氏超市以公平的价格提供了合适的质量和优质服务。它们的价格远低于全食或natural Foods co-ops等高档食品商销售的类似商品。乔氏超市在普通杂货店提供普通商品的美味版和有机版，而且价格相当，支持增值定价。因此，他们对商品进行了改进，以证明其价格是合理的。

有人可能会说，在这里采用何种策略是一个角度的问题。然而，乔氏超市并不是相对于常规杂货店的常规商品定位的，而是作为一个折扣替代美食和有机食品杂货店。此外，增值定价提高了产品的特性和属性，使其值得更高的价格。与普通的杂货店相比，乔氏超市并没有收取更高的价格。他们的产品质量更好。他们的组合更加独特。但他们保持低价。比起“增值”定价，人们更支持“优质”定价。

10-20 乔氏超市的定价战略是否真正使之与竞争对手差异化？

近年来，常规杂货商已经加大了他们的竞争力度。沃尔玛比过去有更多的美食、特产和有机食品。塔吉特的商店品牌似乎呼应了乔氏超市的商品。但没有其他商店提供乔氏超市所做的结合独特的形象和环境的完整产品线。它能够做到这一点，但仍远低于高端竞争对手，并与塔吉特、克罗格(Kroger)、西夫韦(Safeway)等公司势均力敌。

10-21 乔氏超市的定价战略可持续吗？为什么？
这个案例并没有详细说明乔氏超市是如何做它所做的事情的。该公司努力建立一个供应商供应链，让他们能够以自己想要的价格生产自己需要的产品。乔氏超市经营着一个非常注重成本的分销系统，它增长缓慢。乔氏超市永远不会进入一个新的州或地区，除非它能在足够近的地方建立起一个分销系统，使多家商店都有存货。最重要的是，乔氏超市在价格上是有利可图的。换句话说，它成功的秘诀是非常具有战略性的，而且从一开始就如此。毫无疑问，乔氏超市有一个可持续的定价策略和商业模式。

10-22 你有什么帮助乔氏超市进一步改善的建议？
鉴于这家公司的成功，这是一个很难回答的问题。它没有做的事情，它从战略上选择了不做。一些学生的建议可能会损害乔氏超市战略的可持续性，比如提高新店开业率，或将价格提高到足以提高利润率但不会失去顾客的程度。温和地对待建议，尽量选择那些乔氏超市真正能从中受益而又不会损害其商业模式的建议。

教学建议

首先让学生了解乔氏超市独特的价格/价值等式，以及顾客对这家店的感觉。展示一个由乔氏超市的粉丝制作的视频(lwww.youtube.com/watch?v=OdB7GDZY3Pk&feature=related)，这将使任何忠诚的乔氏超市顾客在房间里点头和微笑。然后，访问www.traderjoes.com。从页面右上方的下拉菜单中选择任何位置，然后点击页面中间的“Check out the Fearless Flyer”标签。这将拉起一个多页传单，显示许多独特的乔氏超市的产品和价格。对一个粉丝网站(如www.traderjoesfan.com/)的简单访问也可能有助于展示乔氏超市的风格。一旦你掌握了乔氏超市的经验，你就可以探索价值主张背后的模型了。

这个案例是为第10章开发的。同样也适用于第1章和第11章。

请登录mymktlab.com查看以下辅助评分的写作问题:

10-23 为什么消费者如此关心汽油的价格?为什么他们愿意寻找价格更低的加油站? (AACSB:沟通;反思性思考)

10-24 描述成本加成的定价方法，并讨论为什么营销人员使用它，即使它不是最好的定价方法。(AACSB:沟通;反思性思考)

额外的项目，作业和例子

项目

采访一家当地的企业，了解他们的定价理念和/或策略。使用他们的术语，然后应用你从他们那里学到的东西来评估文中描述的方法。有什么相似和不同之处?(目标2)
利用当地的报纸比较杂货店的特价广告。关于竞争对手的定价策略，你能确定什么?本章中组织使用了多少技术?哪种策略最成功?你是怎么做出这个判断的?(目标2)
沃尔玛如何利用高价值定价?(目标2)
解释一下戴尔(Dell)等公司是如何使用成本加成定价的。这种定价策略的竞争劣势是什么?(目标3)
开车在城里转转，看看不同加油站的汽油价格。用寡头竞争来解释你所看到的现象。(目标3)

小组作业

把学生分成三到五人一组。每个小组都应该读一下《营销实例10.1:精神航空公司的良好价值:获得更少但付出更少》。然后每组回答下列问题并与全班分享他们的答案。(目标1)

a. 用你自己的话解释精神航空的定价策略。该公司采用高价值定价还是增值定价?解释一下。

b. 精神航空公司是如何区别于其他航空公司的?它如何向消费者传递价值?

c. 精神航空的定价策略是可持续的吗?在什么样的经济形势下?解释一下。

d. 如果要改变的话，你会建议精神航空做什么?

2. 把学生分成三到五人一组。每组都应该阅读《营销实例10.2：全食：找到恰当的价格-价值等式》。然后每组回答下列问题并与全班分享他们的答案。(目标2)

1. 全食超市在食品市场上采取了什么独特的定价策略?

2. 相对于竞争对手，全食超市的市场地位如何?

3. 全食给顾客带来的独特的“顾客价值”是什么?

4. 全食超市能够保持它在价格-价值等式中所取得的平衡吗?

个人作业

1. 重读本章“什么是价格?”假设你正在考虑为求职面试买一套新西装。你正在考虑在萨克斯第五大道精品百货店(一家高端百货公司)和迪拉德百货公司(一家中等规模的百货公司)比较西装。讨论两家机构在“价格”方面的总体差异。(目标1)

2. 什么是“每日低价”?“除了沃尔玛，你认为哪些公司能够利用这种定价策略取得巨大成功?”(目标2)

思考-同伴-分享

考虑下面的问题，构思一个答案，与你右边的学生配对，互相分享你们的想法，并回答老师提出的问题。

什么是价格?(目标1)
讨论顾客价值在决定价格中的作用。(目标2)
解释基于价值、高价值和价值增值定价策略之间的区别。(目标2)
什么是目标利润定价?(目标3)
解释一下需求曲线。(目标3)

外部例子

让我们来看看The Poison Pen (www.poisonedpen.com/)，这是一家位于亚利桑那州斯科茨代尔的独立小书店。他们的座右铭是:“这不仅仅是一家书店，而是一种体验。”看看他们的网站。请阅读该博客的所有者芭芭拉。看看哪些作者被安排出现和签售他们的书。看看他们的定价。参考它的座右铭体验一下这家店。讨论The Poison Pen的定价方法。他们如何才能在与亚马逊(Amazon.com)或巴诺(Barnes & Noble)这样书商的竞争中保持优势?(目标2)

可能的解决方案：

在花了一些时间在The Poisoned Pen的网站上寻找之后，很明显，他们肯定不是一个折扣定价的运作。在这个行业里，发现新发行的精装书以厂家建议价格的25%到50%的价格出售已经是很正常的事了，但The Poisoned Pen却不打折。但是，对他们的顾客来说，这种定价策略是划算的。The Poisoned Pen使用基于价值的定价方法。他们的产品价格不是由产品成本决定的，而是由买方对价值的感知决定的。他们的方法绝对是增值的。他们为顾客提供高水平的个性化服务，跟踪他们之前购买的东西，并就他们可能感兴趣的其他东西提出建议。你的个人信息会被保存在他们的档案中，顾客只需打电话给他们说:“嗨，我是Mike。你能把卡斯勒的新书寄给我吗?”此外，他们专门制作签名的第一版。这种结合了作者签名版本的高级个性化服务确保了他们能够向顾客提供高价值。这是最好的增值定价。

你的教材讨论了全食超市，一个高档的杂货零售商。你可以在www.wholefoodsmarket.com/上了解公司和产品。花些时间了解所提供的产品类型和所提供的产品信息。这个网站充满了关于产品线、质量标准、安全标准、优惠券等信息。使用商店定位工具找到离你最近的零售商。访问一个，并为你感兴趣的产品定价。他们怎么能这样定价呢?网站上和商店里提供的信息是如何为消费者增加价值的?(目标3)

可能的解决方案：

全食超市不讲价。事实上，除了可以在线订购的商品，在网站上很难找到任何关于价格的参考。正如文中所指出的，该公司致力于为全食的产品建立“非价格”地位。他们提供以新鲜、健康或有机来源而闻名的产品。然而，他们也提供商店品牌(365日价值)和更传统的水果和蔬菜。该公司甚至提供食谱和省钱秘诀，以及单日和“闪购”促销。网站上广泛的信息是为了教育消费者全食公司所提供的价值。这些信息在商店里也有很多，所以消费者不必依赖网站来了解和购买他们觉得舒服的东西。正如教科书中提到的，“价值意味着你的钱得到了一个好的交换。”“全食超市已经做出了调整，以确保顾客感到他们正在接受这种价值，这种有益的交换。

中国经济管理大学

中国经济管理大学官网：www.eauc.hk 中国经济管理大学 MBA公益课堂

中国经济管理大学 MOOC（慕课站）美华管理传播网：www.mhjy.net

中国经济管理大学 MBA课堂笔记：菲利普科特勒《市场营销原理与实践》：吸引消费者和沟通顾客价值：整合营销沟通战略

Mon, 06 Jul 2026 14:30:02 +0800

菲利普科特勒《市场营销原理与实践》全新版

中国经济管理大学 MBA课堂笔记

吸引消费者和沟通顾客价值：整合营销沟通战略

中国经济管理大学/中國經濟管理大學

吸引消费者和沟通顾客价值：整合营销沟通战略

引例

士力架：饥饿的时候，你就不是你自己了

引例
士力架是玛氏的一种产品，几十年来一直被定位在一个最重要的品牌属性上:士力架令人满意。到了21世纪初，士力架已经过时了。它的位置已经过时了;它的销售和市场份额已经停滞。在2010年超级碗期间，士力架推出了一个新的广告活动。“当你饥饿的时候，你就不是你自己了。”这一新的创意理念比公司预想的更加成功。它以一种强大而普遍的呼吁开始…饥饿。这一概念使其具有想象力和娱乐性的广告以及跨媒体平台的执行。玛氏已经开发了一个完全整合了印刷、电视、数字、移动、定位和其他媒体，甚至包装的活动。这一活动甚至扩展到国际上，这在很大程度上是基于幽默的广告中不可能做到的。当活动开始时，士力架正在失去市场份额。士力架很快就超越了M&Ms，成为世界上最畅销的糖果，这一地位至今仍在。士力架对玛氏公司年收入的贡献超过10%。整合营销传播活动是这一成功的很大一部分。

开始讨论

通过访问http://snickers.tumblr.com/来开始讨论。探索士力架的世界，在你饿的时候创造一个你自己的表情包。帮助学生发现在这次获奖活动中所使用的大量媒体和公关元素，并了解这些元素之间以及与整个活动主题之间的良好结合。这个多媒体网站提供了一个跳板，探索“饥饿的时候，你就不是你自己了”活动的所有不同方面。接下来，您可以通过页面上的链接访问Facebook、Twitter和YouTube上的活动，了解士力架是如何利用社交媒体的。它举办了竞赛，以吸引顾客积极参与这项活动。总的来说，这个活动在视觉和艺术上都很有趣，所以在讨论过程中请享受乐趣。但最重要的是，要确保学生们能够理解“饥饿的时候，你就不是你自己了”活动是如何将它的各个部分围绕着一个简单的主题整合在一起，并辅以适量的幽默。

讨论问题

1. 除此之外，士力架“饥饿的时候，你就不是你自己了”这一广告背后的关键品牌信息是什么?(快速浏览http://snickers.tumbler.com/网站。与学生们讨论这个运动是愚蠢的、不敬的，并且是士力架顽固派喜爱的事实。事实上，人们总是好奇谁会是下一个参加活动的人。成为其中的一员就成了一种“荣誉徽章”。)

2. 士力架能有效地传递此消息吗?如何?(到目前为止，学生们应该意识到，虽然这场运动有很多部分，但整体大于部分之和。从网站到Facebook页面，再到YouTube视频，“饥饿的时候，你就不是你自己了”的所有内容都被仔细地整合在共同的主题和意象下。活动的每一个方面都能让消费者清楚地了解到信息，或者吸引消费者在店里购买士力架，无论是冰淇淋还是各种各样的糖果棒。)

3. 士力架的故事和第14章的概念有什么关系?(本章开始讨论迅速变化的营销传播环境和整合当今丰富的新媒体和传统媒体的迫切需要。“饥饿的时候，你就不是你自己了”活动就是一个很好的例子。)

概览

公司必须做的不仅仅是创造顾客价值。他们还必须利用晋升来清晰而有说服力地传达这种价值。提升不是单一的工具，而是多种工具的混合。在整合营销传播(IMC)的概念下，公司必须仔细协调这些推广元素，以传递关于组织及其品牌的清晰、一致和引人注目的信息。

s. 本章以介绍各种促销组合工具开始。接下来，我们研究了快速变化的通信环境和IMC的需要。最后，本章讨论了发展营销传播和促销预算过程的步骤。

目标

定义沟通顾客价值的促销组合工具。
讨论变化中的市场营销沟通环境及整合营销沟通的必要性。
简要说明沟通过程，以及开展有效营销沟通的步骤。
解释制定促销预算的方法，以及影响促销组合设计的因素。

讲义

导入

在一个促销主题不断变化的行业中,士力架意外持久的“当你饥饿时，你就不是你了”的名人广告当中的主角是一个不太可能的使用(足球运动员贝蒂·白和威廉·达福变为玛丽莲·梦露)——已经成功地使顾客参与进来,传达品牌的个性和定位,并将士力架带到全球糖果市场的顶部位置。

士力架运动成功的关键在于它惊人的一致性。六年多来，士力架一直坚持它简单而有力的“饿了就不是你了”的理念，该品牌利用名人来证明这一点也很有效。

以士力架满足的几十年的基本信息为基础，士力架通过巧妙的信息执行和创新的媒体投放不断变化的组合来保持广告的新鲜感。

今天，士力架的经典但仍属当代的整合营销传播活动比企业员工想象得更成功。

Ø 开场问题

1. 士力架想通过这个活动传递给顾客的主要品牌信息是什么?

2. 这个滑稽的整合活动是如何将士力架与糖果行业的竞争对手区分开来的呢?

3. 公司用来实现其目标的主要促销组合工具是什么?

4. 你认为士力架的销售成功能持续多久?这种“品牌印象”在消费者心中有多持久?

定义沟通顾客价值的促销组合工具。

促销组合

公司的促销组合（promotion mix），又称为营销沟通组合（marketing communications mix），由广告、销售促进、人员销售、公共关系和直复与数字营销等工具的特定组合构成，用于有说服力地沟通顾客价值和建立顾客关系。

以下是五种主要的促销工具定义：

广告（advertising）：由特定广告主出资发布的非人格化的对观念、商品或服务的各种形式的展示和促销。
销售促进（sales promotion）：为鼓励产品和服务的购买或销售而进行的短期激励。
人员销售（personal selling）：公司的销售人员为实现达成销售和建立顾客关系的目的而进行的商品介绍和展示。
公共关系（public relations）：通过获得有利的宣传，建立良好的企业形象，处理或应对不利的流言、事故和事件，与公司的各种公众建立良好的关系。
直复与数字营销（direct and digital marketing）：与仔细确定的个体消费者和消费者社群直接联系以获得即刻反馈和培养持久顾客关系。——使用电话、邮件、电子邮件、互联网和其他工具直接与特定客户沟通。

讨论变化中的市场营销沟通环境及整合营销沟通的必要性。

整合营销沟通

新的市场营销沟通模式

一些重要的因素正在改变营销沟通的面貌。

消费者在变化。他们在信息更加灵通的同时，具有更强的沟通能力。
市场营销战略在变化。随着大众市场的细碎化，市场营销者逐渐放弃了大众营销。他们越来越倾向于设计更加聚焦的市场营销计划，在更加精确定义的微观市场中，与顾客建立更加紧密的联系。
通信技术的巨大进步极大地改变了公司和顾客间的沟通方式。

尽管电视网、杂志及其他大众媒体仍然非常重要，但它们日渐失去主导地位。广告商现在越来越多地使用更加专业和聚焦的媒体，以更加个人化和互动性的信息影响更小的细分市场。

新媒体范围从专业杂志、有线电视频道、为网络制作的视频到互联网目录、电子邮件、博客、移动电话内容和在线社交网络。信息工具包括智能手机、平板电脑、卫星和有线电视系统。

如今，营销者正将大部分营销预算从旧媒体转移到网络、社交、移动和其他新型媒体上。

看起来，新的营销传播模式将包括传统大众媒体和一系列令人兴奋的、更有针对性、更个性化、更吸引人的新媒体的转变组合。市场营销人员现在更多地被定义为内容营销经理。

内容营销涉及利用付费的、拥有的、赢得的和分享的沟通渠道与顾客一起或在顾客之间创造、激发和分享品牌信息和对话。

整合营销沟通的必要性

消费者不会像市场营销者那样区分信息来源之间的差别。

消费者的心目中，来自不同媒体的信息和促销方式——无论是超级碗赛季中的广告、店内陈列、手机应用程序，还是朋友在社交媒体上发布的消息——汇总起来构成了公司的整体形象。如果不同渠道所传达的信息彼此冲突，就可能导致混乱的企业形象和品牌定位。

公司常常不能有效地整合各种沟通渠道。大众媒体广告说的是一回事，而价格促销传达的是一个不同的信号，产品标签则创造了另一种信息。公司的销售宣传册上写着完全不同的东西，公司的网站似乎与其他一切都不同步。

问题是这些沟通通常来自公司不同的部门。

大多数公司正践行整合营销沟通（integrated marketing communications，IMC）的理念。

如图 14-1 所示，在这一理念指导下，公司仔细地整合各种沟通渠道，传播关于组织及其品牌的一致、清晰和有说服力的信息。

IMC要求识别顾客与公司、产品和品牌所有可能的接触点。每个品牌接触都会传递一个信息，不管是好的、坏的还是无关紧要的。公司必须努力向每一个联系人传递一致和积极的信息。

IMC通过将公司的所有信息和形象联系在一起，建立品牌识别和牢固的顾客关系。品牌信息和定位是协调所有的传播活动和媒体。

回顾学习目标2：讨论变化中的市场营销沟通环境及整合营销沟通的必要性。

简要说明沟通过程，以及开展有效营销沟通的步骤。

沟通过程概述

整合营销沟通涉及确定目标受众，制定精心策划的促销方案，以获得理想的受众反应。

如今，越来越多的市场营销者开始将沟通视为管理公司及其品牌与顾客的长期关系。

由于顾客之间差别很大，公司需要为特定的细分市场、缝隙市场甚至个人制定相应的沟通计划。

沟通过程应该从审计目标顾客与公司及其品牌所有可能的接触点开始。

为了进行有效沟通，市场营销者还需要理解沟通是如何起作用的。沟通涉及图 14-2 中的9 个要素。

发送者：向另一方发布信息的主体。
编码：将意图转化为符号形式的过程。
信息：发送者传递的一组符号。
媒体：信息从发送者传递到接收者的沟通渠道。
解码：接收者对发送者编码的符号赋予含义。
接收者：接收由另一方传递的信息的人。
反应：接收者在接触信息之后的反应。
反馈：接收者的某些反应反向传递给信息的发送者。
噪声：沟通过程中意外的干扰或曲解，导致接收者获得的信息与发送者发送的信息有偏差。

开展有效营销沟通的步骤

开展一项有效整合沟通和促销计划有几个步骤。

确定目标受众

营销沟通始于确定目标受众。他们应该是当前或潜在的购买者、制定购买决策的人或影响购买决策的人。受众也许是个人、群体、特定公众或一般公众。

目标受众将极大地影响营销沟通人员的多项重要决策，包括说什么、怎样说、何时说、在哪里说以及谁来说等等。

明确沟通目标

一旦确定目标受众，市场营销者就必须决定希望得到的反应。当然，在许多情况下，消费者的购买行为是沟通人员最终的目标。但购买只是消费者决策制定过程的最终结果。营销沟通者需要知道目标受众现在处于何种阶段，以及需要发展到什么阶段。目标受众可能处于六个购买者准备阶段（buyer-readiness stages）中的某一个，这些阶段是消费者在购买决策过程中通常要经历的（见图 14-3）。

营销沟通人员必须首先建立知晓度和了解。

假设目标受众已经知道产品，他们对它有何感觉呢？步骤包括喜爱（对该产品产生好感）、偏好（相对其他竞争性产品，对该产品情有独钟），以及信服（相信该产品才是自己的最佳选择）。

部分目标顾客被说服了，但还未急于作出购买决策。沟通者必须引导这些潜在消费者采取最后的购买行动。其他行动可能包括向购买者提供特殊促销价格、回扣或赠品。

设计信息

确定理想的受众反应之后，市场营销沟通者开始制定有效的信息。

理想的信息应该能够引起注意（attention）、产生兴趣（interesting）、激发欲望（desire）和促进行动（action），这就是所谓的AIDA 模型。

市场营销沟通者组织信息时，必须决定说什么（信息内容）和怎样说（信息结构和形式）的问题。

信息内容

市场营销者必须提出恰当的诉求或主题，以产生预期的反应。诉求有三类。

理性诉求（rational appeal）与受众的自身利益相关联，展示产品将带来的预期利益。
情感诉求（emotional appeal）旨在激起消极或积极的情绪，从而刺激购买。营销沟通人员可以运用诸如爱、欢乐、幽默、恐惧和愧疚等情感诉求，从而使人们做他们应该做的事情或不再做他们不应该做的事情。
道德诉求（moral appeal）帮助受众了解什么是“对的”和“恰当的”。它们通常用于鼓励人们支持社会事业，诸如清洁环境、更好的种族关系，妇女的平等权利和帮助弱势群体。

信息结构

市场营销者还必须决定如何处理三个信息结构问题。

第一，应该直接给出结论，还是让受众自己判断？研究表明，在许多情况下，广告主最好提出问题，让购买者得出自己的结论。
第二，应该在开始还是最后提出强有力的论点？一开始就抛出强有力的论点虽然可以引起强烈的注意，但可能导致虎头蛇尾。
第三，应该提供单方面的论点（只提产品的优势），还是两方面的论点（宣扬产品优势的同时，也承认其不足之处）？

信息形式

市场营销沟通者还需要为其信息确定对目标市场有吸引力的形式。

在平面广告中，沟通者必须决定标题、文案、插图和色彩。为了吸引注意，广告主可以运用虚构和对比；吸引眼球的图片和标题；独特的构图；文字的大小和定位，以及色彩、造型和变化。

如果要通过广播传送消息，沟通者必须选择文字、音效和声音。

如果信息是通过电视或个人传播的，那么所有这些因素加上肢体语言都必须经过计划。主持人要计划好他们的面部表情、手势、着装、姿势和发型。

如果信息通过产品或其包装来传达，市场营销沟通者还必须关注其质地、结构、气味、色彩、大小和形状。

选择沟通渠道和媒体

接下来，市场营销沟通者必须选择沟通渠道。沟通渠道可以分为两大类——人际沟通和非人际沟通。

人际沟通渠道

在人际沟通渠道（personal communication channels）中，两个或更多的人彼此直接沟通。

有的人际沟通渠道由公司直接控制。例如，公司的销售人员与目标顾客接触。但是，有关产品的其他人际沟通是通过不由公司直接控制的渠道到达购买者的。“口碑影响”（word-of-mouth influence）的影响在许多产品领域都不可小视。

公司可以采取措施推动对自己有利的人际沟通行为。

公司可以采取措施推动对其品牌有利的人际沟通行为。

公司可以培养意见领袖（opinion leaders）——其观点受到其他人的追随——将产品以优惠的条件提供给他们使用，或者通过培训使他们更加了解公司及产品，以便能够告知和影响其他人。

蜂鸣营销（buzz marketing）指培养意见领袖，并激励他们将关于产品和服务的信息传播给所在社群的其他人。

非人际沟通渠道

非人际沟通渠道（nonpersonal communication channels）是没有人际接触或反馈的信息传播途径。

主要媒体有印刷媒体、广电媒体、陈列媒体以及网络媒体。

气氛是一种经过设计的环境，用于创造和强化购买者的产品购买倾向。

事件是通过策划活动与目标受众沟通信息。

非人际沟通直接影响购买者。而且，运用大众媒体常常引发更多的人际沟通，进而间接地影响购买者。沟通信息首先从电视、杂志和其他大众媒体传达到意见领袖，然后从这些意见领袖传递给其他人。于是，意见领袖位于大众媒体与受众之间，将信息传播给那些较少接触媒体的人。

选择信息来源

信息对目标受众的影响也受到受众对沟通者看法的影响。来源可靠的信息往往更具说服力。

市场营销者通常雇用名人代言，向目标市场传递信息。不过，公司在选择名人代言品牌时，必须格外小心。

收集反馈

信息发送之后，市场营销沟通者还必须调查它对目标受众的影响。这包括询问目标受众是否记得该信息，看过多少次，还能回忆起哪些要点，有何感受，以及对产品或公司过去和现在的态度。

市场营销沟通人员更乐意测量信息对实际行为的影响——有多少人购买了产品，是否与其他人谈论过产品，或者惠顾过商店。

根据市场营销沟通过程中的反馈，营销者可能需要改变促销计划或产品本身。

回顾学习目标3：简要说明沟通过程，以及开展有效营销沟通的步骤。

解释制定促销预算的方法，以及影响促销组合设计的因素。

制定总促销预算和组合

公司应该如何决定促销总预算及其在主要促销工具之间的分配，以创造理想的促销组合？公司如何组合使用各种促销工具来建立整合营销沟通？

制定总促销预算

公司面临的最艰难的营销决策之一是，应该在促销上花多少钱。我们将考察四种制定促销总预算的常见方法

量入为出法

一些公司使用量入为出法（affordable method），以公司能够负担的水平为标准制定促销预算。

小企业常常运用这种方法，因为公司的广告花费不能超出现有的承受能力。

遗憾的是，以这种方法决定预算完全忽视了促销对销售业绩的影响。它倾向于在所有支出中最后考虑促销，即使在广告对企业成功非常关键的情况下也是如此。

这导致每年促销预算都不确定，营销人员很难制订长期的营销计划。量入为出法有时会导致在促销上花费过度，但更多的时候会导致促销费用不足。

销售比例法

另一些公司运用销售比例法（percentage-of-sales method），按当前或预期销售额的特定比例来制定促销预算。或者，按单位售价的一定比例来做预算。

销售比例法有一定的优点。

它易于操作。
它有助于管理者思考单位促销支出、销售价格和利润之间的关系。

然而，它错误地将销售额视为促销的原因而非结果。

按销售额的一定比例来确定预算的做法是以资金的可获得性，而非市场机会为基础的。它可能会阻止为扭转销售下降而增加促销投入。由于预算按照每年的销售额而变化，很难制订长期计划。

最后，除了过去做过的或竞争者正在做的，该方法不能为选择特定的比例提供任何基础。

竞争对等法

还有一些公司使用竞争对等法（competitive-parity method），按照与竞争对手相当的标准制定促销预算。

它们监视竞争者的广告，或者从公开的数据或行业协会获取行业促销费用的估计，然后根据行业平均水平制定预算。

有两种观点支持该方法:

竞争者的预算代表行业的集体智慧。
与竞争者的促销费用相当有助于避免发生促销战。

遗憾的是，这两种观点都不可靠，没有依据表明竞争者就能比公司自己在促销费用的制定上技高一筹。

不同公司之间差异很大，每个公司都有自己独特的促销需求。最后，没有证据表明，与竞争者对等的预算就可以真的避免促销战。

目标—任务法

最合乎逻辑的方法是目标—任务法（objective-and-task method），公司根据自己的促销目标和打算完成的任务来制定促销预算。

采用这种预算方法必须做到：

确定特定的促销目标
决定为实现这些目标，需要完成的促销任务
估计完成这些任务的成本。

这些成本的总和就是计划的促销预算。

目标—任务法的优点在于，它迫使管理层理清促销费用与促销结果之间的关系。但这种方法最难操作。通常，公司很难判断实现既定目标需要完成哪些特定的任务。

构建促销组合

整合营销沟通的概念表明，公司必须仔细地协调各种促销工具，构建高度整合的促销组合。公司应当如何决定运用哪些促销工具呢？即使同一行业内的公司在设计促销组合时，也会存在很大差别。

各种促销工具的特点

每种促销工具都具有不同的特点和成本。市场营销者在构建促销组合时，必须理解这些特点。

广告能够将信息传递给地域分布很广的受众，而且每次暴露的平均成本较低，广告主能够多次重复发布信息。

除了到达率，大规模的广告传递了关于销售方的正面信息，诸如规模、受欢迎程度以及成功。因为广告的公众性，消费者往往认为广告中的产品更可信赖。

广告当然也有一些不足之处。尽管它可以迅速地到达许多人，但它是非人际沟通，不能像公司的销售人员那样直接地说服潜在顾客。对大多数产品而言，广告只能与受众进行单向的沟通，受众可能不注意或不反应。另外，广告费用可能很高。

在购买过程的特定阶段，尤其在建立买方的偏好，使其信服并采取购买行动上，人员销售是最有效的工具。

一位高效的销售人员为了建立长期关系，需要为顾客解决问题，时时将顾客的利益放在心上。最后，人员销售使购买者通常感到有必要倾听和作出回应，即使仅仅是一句礼节性的“不了，谢谢你”。

但是，这些独特的效果是有代价的。建设一支销售团队比制作一则广告需要更长期的投入——广告可以随时发布和停止，但是销售人员规模很难快速改变。人员销售也是公司最昂贵的促销工具。

美国公司花在人员销售上的费用是广告的 3 倍。

销售促进包括多种多样的工具——优惠券、折扣、加量不加价及其他——所有这些工具都有各自的独特性。

它们吸引顾客的注意力，激发强烈的购买动机，还可以增强产品的吸引力，因此经常用于扩大产品供给和刺激疲软的销售。

销售促进通常可以得到迅速的反应。但是，销售促进的效应是短期的。

公共关系常常得到人们更多的信任——新闻故事、特写报道、赞助和事件对读者而言似乎都比广告更加真实、可信。

公共关系还可以到达许多不愿意接触销售人员和广告的潜在顾客——信息是作为新闻，而不是以推销为目的的沟通传递给购买者的。

市场营销者往往没有充分发挥公共关系的作用，或者仅把它作为一种补充手段。

直复与数字营销有四种形式：

直复营销是非公众性的：信息通常直接针对特定的个人。
直复营销是即刻的和定制化的：信息可以非常迅速地准备好，并且针对特定顾客度身定制。
直复营销是互动性的：它允许市场营销人员和消费者之间建立对话，信息也可以根据消费者的反应进行及时的修改。

因此，直复与数字营销很适合高度目标化的市场营销努力，以及建立一对一的顾客关系。

促销组合战略

市场营销者可以选择两种基本的促销组合战略。图 14-4 比较了这两种战略。

推式战略（push strategy）将产品通过分销渠道向最终消费者推广。制造商针对渠道成员开展营销努力（主要是人员销售和交易促销），旨在吸引它们购买产品并向最终消费者促销。

运用拉式战略（pull strategy）时，制造商将营销努力（主要是广告和消费者促销）集中在最终消费者身上，引导他们购买产品。

如果拉式战略有效的话，消费者会向渠道成员求购产品，这些渠道成员就会像制造商订货。因此，在拉式战略下，消费者需求在整个渠道中“拉动”产品。

大多数企业会综合使用两种战略。

公司在设计其促销组合战略时，需要考虑许多因素，包括产品和市场类型，以及产品生命周期阶段。例如，在消费者市场和组织市场，不同促销工具的重要性存在差异。

B2C 公司通常更频繁地采用拉式战略，将资金更多地投向广告，其次是销售促进、人员销售和公共关系。

反之，B2B 市场营销者更倾向于推式战略，在人员销售上投入更多资金，其次才是销售促进、广告和公共关系。

整合促销组合

制定促销预算和构建促销组合之后，公司必须采取措施确保促销组合中所有的营销要素完美地整合。

整合促销组合应该从顾客出发。无论是广告、人员销售、销售促进、公共关系，还是直复与数字营销，在每个顾客接触点上的沟通必须传递一致的信息和定位。

整合促销组合能使公司所有促销努力的协同效应最大化。

营销沟通的社会责任

公司在构建促销组合时，必须清楚地了解营销沟通中涉及的大量法律和道德问题。

广告与销售促进

依据法律，公司必须避免虚假或欺骗性广告。广告主不可以做出虚假的承诺，比如暗示产品具有某种实际上并不具有的功效。企业还必须避免有欺诈可能的广告，即使实际上还没有人上当受骗。

销售者必须避免偷梁换柱式的广告，不会用虚假的承诺来吸引购买者。

公司的交易促销活动也受到严格的管制。例如，根据《鲁宾逊-帕特曼法案》，卖方不得通过交易促销为特定的顾客提供优惠。公司必须向所有的中间商提供平等的交易条件，包括促销津贴和服务。

公司可以运用广告和其他形式的销售促进来鼓励和推进社会责任计划和行动。

人员销售

公司的销售人员必须遵循“公平竞争”的原则。在美国，大多数州已经颁布了有关法案，列明哪些行为属于欺诈性销售，应该明令禁止。

例如，销售人员不可以夸大购买产品的好处，对消费者说谎或者误导他们。为避免偷梁换柱的行为，销售人员的陈述必须与广告中的宣传相吻合。

对那些在家中接受拜访的消费者和那些去商店搜寻商品的消费者适用不同的原则。

由于在家中接待销售人员拜访的人可能感到意外，特别容易受到高压销售技巧的影响，联邦贸易委员会制定了三天冷静期（three-day cooling-off）规则，对那些并未主动搜寻商品的人给予特别的保护。

许多人员销售涉及组织间的交易活动。向组织出售时，销售人员不可以向采购人员或其他能够影响销售结果的人员行贿。他们不可以通过贿赂或商业间谍活动来获得或使用竞争者的技术或商业秘密。最后，销售人员不可以暗示不真实的事情来贬低和诋毁竞争者或竞争性产品。

回顾学习目标4：解释制定促销预算的方法，以及影响促销组合设计的因素。

讨论问题

14-1 列举并简要描述企业营销沟通组合中五种主要的促销工具。(AASCB:沟通)

答案：

广告（advertising）：由特定广告主出资发布的非人格化的对观念、商品或服务的各种形式的展示和促销。

销售促进（sales promotion）：为鼓励产品和服务的购买或销售而进行的短期激励。

人员销售（personal selling）：公司的销售人员为实现达成销售和建立顾客关系的目的而进行的商品介绍和展示。

公共关系（public relations）：通过获得有利的宣传，建立良好的企业形象，处理或应对不利的流言、事故和事件，与公司的各种公众建立良好的关系。

直复与数字营销（direct and digital marketing）：与仔细确定的个体消费者和消费者社群直接联系以获得即刻反馈和培养持久顾客关系。

µ 14-2 讨论内容营销，以及市场营销者如何运用新框架来决定如何以及由谁创造、控制和扩散营销内容？(AASCB:沟通)

答案： 学生的回答会根据个人的反应而有所不同。请参考MyLab，从而更好地分配此问题，请将所有带星号标记的MyLab问题分配给学生讨论。

14-3 什么是整合营销沟通？企业如何运用整合营销沟通？(AASCB:沟通)

答案：

在整合营销沟通理念的指导下，公司要仔细地整合各种沟通渠道，传播关于组织及其品牌的一致、清晰和有说服力的信息。整合营销传播要求识别客户可能遇到公司及其品牌的所有接触点。每一次与品牌的接触都会传递一个信息——好、坏或无关紧要。公司的目标应该是在每一次联系中传递一致和积极的信息。整合营销传播将公司所有的信息和形象联系在一起。它的电视广告和平面广告具有与电子邮件和个人销售通信相同的信息、外观和感觉。它的公关材料所呈现出的形象与它的网站、在线社交媒体或移动营销活动呈现出的相同。

通常，不同的媒体在吸引、告知和说服消费者方面发挥独特的作用;这些角色必须在整个营销传播计划下仔细协调。为了帮助实施整合营销传播，一些公司任命了营销传播总监，全权负责公司的传播工作。这有助于产生更好的沟通一致性和更大的销售影响。它把以前不存在的责任放到了某人的手中，从而统一了公司的形象，因为公司的数千项活动塑造了公司的形象。

µ 14-4 讨论市场营销沟通者用以传播信息的两大类沟通渠道。(AASCB:沟通)

答案： 学生的回答会根据个人的反应而有所不同。请参考MyLab，从而更好地分配此问题，请将所有带星号标记的MyLab问题分配给学生讨论。

14-5 企业如何决定促销预算？(AASCB:沟通)

答案：

公司面临的最艰难的营销决策之一是，应该在促销上花多少钱。制定广告总预算有四种常用方法:

· 量入为出法（affordable method）——以公司能够负担的水平为标准制定促销预算。遗憾的是，以这种方法决定预算完全忽视了促销对销售业绩的影响。

· 销售比例法（percentage-of-sales method）——按当前或预期销售额的特定比例来制定促销预算。或者，按单位售价的一定比例来做预算。它易于操作，有助于管理者思考单位促销支出、销售价格和利润之间的关系。

· 竞争对等法（competitive-parity method）——按照与竞争对手相当的标准制定促销预算。它们监视竞争者的广告，或者从公开的数据或行业协会获取行业促销费用的估计，然后根据行业平均水平制定预算。

· 目标-任务法（objective-and-task method）——公司根据自己的促销目标和打算完成的任务来制定促销预算。采用这种预算方法必须做到：（1）确定特定的促销目标；（2）决定为实现这些目标，需要完成的促销任务；（3）估计完成这些任务的成本。

批判性思考练习

µ 14-6 确定一个新的消费食品或饮料产品。利用主要的促销工具，为该产品设计一个促销活动。确定你如何同时使用推式和拉式策略。(AACSB:沟通;运用信息技术;反思性思考)

答案： 学生的回答会根据个人的反应而有所不同。请参考MyLab，从而更好地分配此问题，请将所有带星号标记的MyLab问题分配给学生讨论。

14-7 在一个小组中，选择一个广告，该广告要适当地针对如图14.2所示的传播过程的各个方面。说明如何在公司广告中表现每个元素。讨论广告本身如何构成产品的有效营销传播。(AACSB:沟通;反思性思考)

答案：

使用图14.2，学生可以从他们选择的公司举例说明沟通过程的各个方面:发送者、编码、信息、媒体、解码、接收者、反应、反馈和噪声。学生的广告将不能满足有效的营销沟通，因为这个模型是基础的，并不能解释所有复杂的营销者在达到他们的目标市场。营销人员正逐渐将沟通视为管理持续的客户接触和与公司及其品牌的关系。营销人员需要评估在购买过程的不同阶段，每一种沟通体验会产生什么样的影响。这种理解有助于市场营销人员更有效地分配他们的沟通费用。

14-8 尼尔森(Nielsen)的一项全球调查显示，消费者更倾向于支持那些他们认为具有社会责任感的公司。找出三个包含社会责任营销信息的广告例子。这些广告会增加你从赞助他们的公司购买的可能性吗?解释一下。(AACSB:沟通;道德推理;反思性思考)

答案：

尼尔森公司对全球企业社会责任进行了调查，共有58个国家的2.9万名互联网受访者参与了调查。愿意花更多钱的消费者比例在男性和女性以及所有年龄段中都有所上升，30岁以下的受访者最有可能表示，他们愿意花更多钱购买回馈社会的公司提供的商品和服务。在40-44岁的消费者中，50%的人同意他们将支付更多，而两年前只有38%。见www.sustainablebrands.com/news_and_views/behavior_change/50-global-consumers-willing-pay-more-socially-responsible-products。

学生可以被引导去搜索“有社会责任感的广告活动”或其他例子。例子包括:(1)美国电话电报公司(AT&T)的“等一等”(It Can Wait)运动教育人们不要发短信和开车(www.youtube.com/watch?v=9OmzhLfMLsI);(2)汰渍公司的“承载希望”项目在自然灾害后送去洗衣机和洗涤剂(www.youtube.com/watch?v=1K-yjsRFW9Y);(3) TOMS——每卖出一双鞋，TOMS就会捐赠一双给需要帮助的孩子(www.youtube.com/watch?v=xkF4X5MfW0w);(4)救世军利用广告牌来提高家庭暴力意识(https://philanthropy.com/article/Salvation-Army-s/228349)。

应用和案例

网络，移动和社交媒体营销： #withoutshoes

Blake Mycoskie创办了TOMS，承诺每卖出一双鞋就捐赠一双。2015年5月，TOMS在社交媒体上发起了一场活动，以延续其慈善使命。每在Instagram上发一条光脚的帖子，并以“没穿鞋”为标签，汤姆就会给有需要的孩子捐一双鞋。该活动展示了该公司对其事业的承诺，同时熟练地利用了Instagram上常见的潮流。“无鞋”活动共捐赠了296,243双鞋子，并获得了美国公共关系协会颁发的银砧奖。TOMS为鞋子和眼镜、水甚至“善良”(反欺凌培训)等必需品提供了许多一对一的项目，这些项目有助于建立强大的顾客关系和品牌社区。

<CORE>14-9 </CORE><ALT1>10.</ALT1> 请解释一下TOMS是如何在“无鞋”活动中运用公共关系作为公司促销组合的一部分。这个工具在哪些方面帮助了TOMS的推广?(AACSB:沟通，反思性思考)

答案：

TOMS融合了几个元素:达到了美国18-34岁的男性和女性目标市场(尽管是一个国际品牌)，掀起了光脚拍照的潮流，并充分利用了社交媒体网络。有效的公共关系努力往往被认为比广告更可信，被消费者视为真实的。TOMS有效地创造了一个事件——没有鞋子的一天。这一信息被消费者视为不仅仅是销售导向的沟通。在为公司创造关注和宣传方面，这也是成本效益高的，公司为了实现目标在付费媒体上几乎没有支出。

<CORE>14-10 </CORE><ALT1>11.</ALT1>在互联网上搜索TOMS如何使用促销工具吸引消费者的更多信息。选择两个具体的活动，并评估TOMS的促销策略。(AACSB:沟通，反思性思考，运用信息技术)

答案：

TOMS混合了多种促销手段，包括直邮、公共关系活动和促销活动，如竞赛。学生们将讨论这些促销策略与传统的印刷、广告牌和电视广告的混合效果。TOMS的消费者通常是大量数字内容的用户，因此传统媒体渠道不太可能获得有效的结果。TOMS促销的例子包括:

· TOMS旅行:该公司前往全国各地的大学校园，与目标消费者进行个人接触。TOMS以“不仅仅是一双鞋”为主题，激励大学生们更多地参与到他们的社区中来。TOMS的粉丝们通过Facebook或使用TOMS的移动应用程序跟踪该公司的旅行。

· TOMSHolidayCheer假唱大赛邀请顾客参与该品牌活动并录制假唱视频。获胜者将获得2500美元，汤姆将根据获胜者的选择向慈善机构捐款2500美元。见www.toms.com/holidaycheer/。

· 鞋设计大赛:TOMS通过在网站上让消费者设计自己的鞋来吸引和使消费者参与进来。共有10个设计被选择和可在网上购买。

· 扔鞋:TOMS的一个活动是在空旷的地方扔鞋;一架飞机会扔下500个帆布包，里面有50美元的TOMS礼包、TOMS贴纸和即将举办活动的传单。

营销伦理：一场有伦理的促销？

联合利华(Unilever)在泰国的一个品牌在“Citra 3D亮肤女孩搜索”(Citra 3D Brightening Girls Search)的推广活动中遇到了一些问题。Citra珍珠白紫外线沐浴露作为皮肤美白产品上市。皮肤美白在许多亚洲国家很流行，因为较浅的肤色意味着较高的经济地位。然而，这种信念不是由营销人员创造的。人类学家指出，亚洲文化，尤其是泰国，长期以来一直将深肤色与户外农民和田野工人联系在一起，将浅肤色与较高的社会经济地位联系在一起。Citra的广告受到了批评，因为它展示了两个女学生——一个比另一个肤色浅——并问她们什么能让她们“穿制服时出类拔萃”。肤色较深的女孩似乎很困惑，没有回答，而肤色较浅的女孩则用Citra的产品口号作答。在社交媒体的强烈抗议后，Citra撤下了这则广告，但它并没有阻止相关的奖学金竞赛。比赛为最能展示“产品功效”的大学生提供了10万泰铢(3200美元)的奖金，也就是皮肤最白的人。该公司声称，他们的产品能帮助人们自我感觉良好，增强他们的自尊心。

<CORE>14-11</CORE><ALT1>12.</ALT1>既然更白的皮肤和皮肤美白在泰国很受欢迎，那么市场营销人员提供和推广鼓励这种信念和行为的产品是错误的吗?解释为什么或为什么不。(AACSB:沟通;反思性思考;道德推理)

答案：

学生的答案会有所不同。搜索“亚洲皮肤美白”为学生提供了额外的信息来源。学生们应该记住，基于自己的文化和经验来评价产品可能是不合适的。当一个国家或地区的文化重视浅色皮肤时，这个产品适合市场吗?有些人可能会说，根据肤色而不是学术成绩或经济需要提供奖学金是种族主义或不公平的。

<CORE>14-12 </CORE><ALT1>13.</ALT1>找到其他市场营销人员通过推广可能被其他文化以外的人视为不合适的文化产品而引起争议的例子。(AACSB:沟通;反思性思考)

答案：

学生的答案会有所不同。有些可能是在世界上一些地方很受欢迎的食品，而在世界上其他地方却受到批评。鱼翅汤就是一个例子。在中药中使用动物部位是另一个学生可以探索的范畴。

泰国的更多例子包括曼谷的一家公司和唐恩都乐。这家总部位于曼谷的公司为一种可以提亮肤色的饮料做广告，并在火车座位上打出了“为白人保留”的横幅（参见Warangkana Chomchuen，“泰国的护肤搅拌锅”，《华尔街日报》，2013年10月26日，第A8页）。唐恩都乐公司(Dunkin ' Donuts)推出了一则“炭色甜甜圈”的广告，广告中一位女性化了黑色妆容。而美国的公司发表了道歉声明,泰国的被特许人却不明所以,并说改活动在促进销售方面非常成功(参见t.l.斯坦利的《Dunkin ' Donuts为黑脸广告道歉，但不是每个人都感到抱歉》，《广告周刊》，2013年9月3日，www.adweek.com/adfreak/dunkin-donuts-apologizes-blackface-ad-not-everyone-sorry-152172)。

另一个例子是福特在印度的性别歧视广告。在印度，女性受到的待遇与美国等国家不同，福特公司在网上发布了未经授权的福特菲戈(Ford Figo)广告。其中一则广告展示了女性被绑在一辆掀背车的后座上，并堵住了嘴。即使这些都不是“真正的”广告,他们仍然可以在互联网上(参见Timothy Stenovec的《福特印度广告:汽车公司，广告代理为菲戈广告中被堵上和捆绑的女性道歉》，《赫芬顿邮报》，2013年3月25日，www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/03/24/ford- India - Figo - bound-andgagged-women_n_2941297.html)。

通过数字看营销：广告销售比率

使用销售百分比法，广告商将其预算设定在当前或预测销售的一定百分比。然而，确定使用的百分比并不总是明确的。许多营销人员会根据行业平均水平和竞争对手的支出进行比较。网站和行业出版物发布行业平均数据，以指导市场营销人员设定使用百分比。

<CORE>14-13 </CORE><ALT1>14.</ALT1>寻找行业广告销售比率数据。为什么有些行业的广告销售比其他行业高?(AACSB:沟通;运用信息技术;反思性思考)

答案：

Schonfeld & Associates按行业提供广告销售比率。在www.rab.com/secure/AdtoSales/2013AdtoSalesRatios.pdf or

www.saibooks.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=60&Itemid=61 上看2013年的数据。

销售比率最高的行业——化妆品和麦芽饮料——是高度竞争的行业，它们用形象来定位品牌。在这种情况下，广告是一种有效的工具。杂货店和医生是更具功能性的服务，竞争较少，他们满足消费者的实用需求，而不是像其他两种产品那样的社会需求。因此，广告在这些类型的服务的促销组合中扮演一个次要的角色。

<CORE>14-14 </CORE><ALT1>15.</ALT1>确定两个竞争公司的广告销售比率，并将其与上面发现的行业广告销售比率进行比较。为什么你认为竞争对手和行业平均水平会有差异?(AACSB:沟通;运用信息技术;分析式推理;反思性思考)

答案：

学生们需要搜索公司的广告支出和销售数据。例如，2013年排名前25位的广告客户的广告支出可以在http://adage.com/article/news/meet-america-s-25-biggest-advertisers/242969/上找到。学生可以从中找到两家相互竞争的公司。例如，梅西百货2013年的广告支出为7.62亿美元，而JCPenney的广告支出为4.99亿美元。梅西的销售额为279.3亿美元(见www.macysinc.com/for-investors/financial-information/quarterly-results/2013/q4-si_52.aspx)，因此梅西的广告销售比为2.7%(7.62亿美元/ 279.3亿美元= 0.027或2.7%)。JCPenney的销售额为129.9亿美元(见www.marketwatch.com/investing/stock/jcp/financials)，广告销售比为5%(6.59亿美元/ 129.9亿美元= 0.05或5%)。

2013年百货公司的平均广告销售比为4.5%。Macy 's 2.7%的比率低于行业平均水平，而JCPenney 5%的比率高于行业平均水平。梅西百货在广告上的花费比其他任何一家百货公司都多，但其销售额也远高于其他零售商。

企业案例记录

沃尔沃卡车：前所未有的整合营销沟通

概要

几年前，全球最大的商用卡车生产商之一沃尔沃卡车公司(Volvo Trucks)面临一项巨大挑战。它正在准备20年来首次重要的产品上市——一年之内推出5 种新型号的卡车。为了这一上市，沃尔沃卡车需要一个整合营销沟通战略，以实现雄心勃勃的目标——让全球的人谈论商用卡车。沃尔沃卡车感兴趣的不仅仅是在其通常的目标客户即公司卡车买家之间创造蜂鸣效应，而且希望吸引普通大众，提高他们对品牌的认知度、记住品牌的优势所在，并让国内外的人们谈论、分享和支持品牌。实现这一目标——沃尔沃卡车如何在当代公众视野中保持品牌活力——将是一次前所未有的广告成功。

教学目标

本案例的教学目标是：

掌握整合营销传播的一般性质。
了解促销组合的要素。
接触非传统的促销方式。
了解促销、品牌、分销、价格和目标顾客之间的关系。

讨论问题：

14-18 沃尔沃卡车运用的是哪一种促销组合元素？

社交媒体——“现场测试”活动的核心是在沃尔沃卡车YouTube频道单独推出的多特色系列短片，并在整个社交媒体上播放。对沃尔沃卡车(Volvo Trucks)工程师的采访也在广播中播出。采取措施促进视频分享，增加沃尔沃卡车在社交媒体渠道上的粉丝群。

广告——迷你电影的版本在电视上重播。印刷广告版本被放在卡车印刷机上。

直接营销——一些比较现代的、非传统的促销元素很难放在任何一类传统的促销组合中。然而，Twitter的策略是直接将信息传递给个人消费者。在某些方面，甚至连Facebook的努力也在做同样的事情。

公共关系——2万专题评论。

个人销售——所有市场的销售人员都使用“现场测试”电影作为一个话题和讨论新模型的独特特点的跳板。

14-19 “现场测试”运动怎样展示了整合营销的特点？你如何评价“现场测试”运动的整合效果？

学生的答案会有所不同。然而，毫无疑问，它应该是一个强大的等级。“现场测试”活动是否与通过不同的宣传元素播出的不同信息脱节?又或者，运动的各个部分是否协调一致地宣传相同的信息，互相加强?运动的部分是否不仅仅是提高人们的意识和娱乐，他们是否促使人们采取行动?它们是否加强了顾客与品牌之间的联系?所有这些问题的答案都是一个响亮的“是的”。

14-20 这场“现场测试”采用的消费者营销方法是否适用于所有的 B2B 营销者？请解释。

越来越多的消费型促销技术似乎对B2B市场人员有用。任何时候，终端用户都能看到B2B营销人员的产品，答案是肯定的。例如，在20世纪90年代早期，英特尔通过其“Intel Inside”活动，实际上为B2B广告发明了消费者导向的活动。对购买电脑的终端用户来说，被认为是无形的、无关紧要的组件，如今成了个人电脑领域最重要的消费品牌。在这种情况下，B2C的活动方式奏效了，因为卡车司机也是人。虽然个人司机不一定会做出购买决定，但他们对公司的购买有一定的影响力。

14-21 为保持这次运动所取得的成功，沃尔沃卡车可能会遇到哪些挑战？
首先，这次活动旨在推广五种新的卡车模型——这对沃尔沃来说是重要的一年。让这些模特的兴趣保持活跃是一项艰巨的任务。此外，网络观众会被新奇事物所吸引，但很快就会转向其他东西。因此，沃尔沃卡车不能一直使用同样的方法，并期望它有同样的吸引力。

教学建议

访问沃尔沃卡车的YouTube频道:https://www.youtube.com/user/VolvoTrucks。提前选择一些沃尔沃卡车的视频来展示。这些可能包括“现场测试”活动中的一些。但沃尔沃卡车公司发布了新材料，延长了宣传活动。使用这些来加强案例研究。你也可以考虑一种不同的方法——把学生分成小组或两人一组。给他们几分钟时间，在网上搜索所有东西，尽可能多地找到有关沃尔沃卡车促销活动的例子和参考资料。

这个案例同样适用于广告和公共关系章节(第15章)、直复和网络章节(第17章)以及全球市场章节(第19章)。

请登录mymktlab.com查看以下辅助评分的写作问题:

14-22 说出并描述营销人员在设计营销传播信息时所使用的诉求类型。创建信息时必须考虑哪些信息结构问题?

14-23 选择一个全国性品牌的广告。广告商使用的是什么类型的吸引力?描述使用的信息结构。为品牌制作一个广告，传达相同的信息，但使用不同类型的吸引力和信息结构。

额外的项目、作业和例子

项目

回顾一下促销组合的五个组成部分。找到一个使用这五种组成部分的商家，并描述他们是如何使用每一种部分的。(目标1)
为什么公司使用更少的大众媒体而增加更专业和更有针对性的媒体?哪家公司两者都使用?举例说明公司是如何做到这一点的。(目标2)
想想蜂鸣营销策略——向拥有大型社交网络的青少年发送40美元的智能手机优惠券。设计一个伴随优惠券发放的简短信息。考虑内容、结构和格式问题。(目标3)
给出三个你自己所收到的关于某个产品的口碑传播的例子。沟通的本质是什么?它对你有什么影响?(目标3)
描述五种促销工具，并讨论在形成整体促销组合时必须考虑的因素。(目标4)

小组作业

1. 把学生分成三到五人一组。每个小组都应该阅读《营销实例14.2: 在广告和营销方面做得很好》。然后每组回答下列问题，并与全班分享他们的答案。(目标2)

a. 一个有效的社会责任营销计划的关键要素是什么?

b. 公司利用广告和市场营销在相关的社会和环境问题上表明立场有什么好处?解释一下。

c. 在社会和环境问题上表明立场对一个公司有不利吗?

2. 把学生分成三到五人一组。每个小组都应该回顾沟通过程的基本要素(参见图14.2)。然后每组回答下列问题并与全班分享他们的答案。(目标3)

a. 最好的信息包括什么?

b. 模型指出了良好沟通的几个关键因素是什么?

c. 什么是“噪音”，它是如何潜在地影响沟通过程的?

d. 将沟通模型应用到苹果iMac电视广告中。(如果你需要观看他们的广告，请访问www.apple.com。)

个人作业

查看促销组合的信息。通用汽车公司近年来经常出现在新闻中。GM如何有效地(或非有效地)使用推广组合的每一种工具?(目标1)

营销人员可以从两种基本的促销组合策略中选择——推式促销或拉式促销。首先,描述每个策略。较大的公司通常会结合使用这两种策略。找到两个成功使用这两种促销组合策略的公司的例子。描述他们在做什么，为什么你认为他们会成功。(目标4)

思考-同伴-分享

考虑下面的问题，构思一个答案，与你右边的学生配对，互相分享你们的想法，并回答老师提出的问题。

营销组合和促销组合有什么区别?(目标1)
定义促销组合中的五种促销类型。(目标1)
今天的促销环境有什么不同?这意味着什么?(目标2)
确定个人沟通过程的组成部分。对于成功的沟通来说，哪些元素是最重要的?(目标3)
定义制定促销预算的各种方法。哪种方法最有效?(目标4)
什么是“诱转”广告?给出几个例子。(目标4)

外部例子

Sea Ray是当今最成功的运动船、巡洋舰和游艇制造商之一。他们的模型从17英尺的小型运动船到61英尺的机动游艇不等。看看这家公司(www.searay.com/index.asp)吧。了解他们提供的产品。最重要的是，学习和讨论他们如何运用促销组合的各种元素。(目标1)

可能的解决方案：

Sea Ray的成功部分是因为他们学会了如何有效地利用促销组合元素。从他们的网站，你可以了解到以下内容:

· 广告。网站上有一个链接，可以让你立即看到详细介绍整个产品的最新宣传册。这些小册子也可以下载。还提供了特定型号的视频。

· 促销。根据您访问网站的时间，你可能会在主页上找到与正在进行的特定销售活动有关的信息。这些活动为购买者节省了大量的支出。

· 人员销售。Sea Ray在销售的所有产品都是通过他们的经销商网络销售的。如果你找到你喜欢的船，会有离你最近的Sea Ray经销商联系你提供额外的信息。人员销售是Sea Ray成功运用的促销组合的核心组成部分。

· 公共关系。了解一下Aquapalooza，Sea Ray在全国范围内赞助的划船活动。Sea Ray在几年前开始这一项目，它已经成长为美国最大的划船大赛之一。

· 直接营销。通过向Sea Ray提供你的电子邮件地址和/或邮寄地址，你将被添加到他们的数据库中，并定期获得你可能感兴趣的新闻和信息。

中国经济管理大学

中国经济管理大学官网：www.eauc.hk 中国经济管理大学 MBA公益课堂

中国经济管理大学 MOOC（慕课站）美华管理传播网：www.mhjy.net

Managing Negotiation Impasses

Mon, 06 Jul 2026 14:21:30 +0800

中国经济管理大学 MBA 课堂笔记

Managing Negotiation Impasses

中国经济管理大学/中國經濟管理大學

Managing Negotiation Impasses

Overview

The chapter is organized into three major sections.

First, we discuss the nature of negotiations that are difficult to resolve.

o We examine the nature of impasses—what makes negotiations intractable—and discuss four elements that make negotiations difficult to resolve: the parties, the negotiation setting, the types of issues, and the conflict management process.

In the second section, we explore fundamental mistakes that negotiators make that cause negotiation impasses.
Finally, we discuss strategies that negotiators can use to resolve impasses and get negotiations back on track.

Learning Objectives

1. Understand why some conflicts and negotiations are difficult to resolve successfully.

Explore fundamental mistakes that negotiators make that increase the likelihood of impasse.
Consider a series of tools and approaches that negotiators can use to break and resolve impasses.

Chapter Outline

I. The Nature of Difficult-to-Resolve Negotiations and Why They Occur

A. The Nature of Impasse

B. What Causes Impasses and Intractable Negotiations?

C. Characteristics of the Issues

D. Characteristics of the Parties

E. Characteristics of the Negotiation Environment

F. Characteristics of the Negotiation Setting

II. Fundamental Mistakes That Cause Impasses

A. Preventing Impasses

III. How to Resolve Impasses

A. Agreement on the Rules and Procedures

B. Reducing Tension and Synchronizing De-escalation

C. Improving the Accuracy of Communication

D. Controlling Issues

E. Establishing Common Ground

F. Enhancing the Desirability of Options to the Other Party

IV. Chapter Summary

I. The Nature of “Difficult-to-Resolve” Negotiations and Why They Occur

· It is not uncommon for negotiations, especially distributive ones, to become contentious to the point of breakdown.

· We begin this section by discussing impasse as a way to understand difficult negotiations, and we examine what causes negotiations to become intractable and reach impasse.

A. The Nature of Impasse

· Impasse is a condition or state of conflict in which there is no apparent quick or easy resolution – parties are unable to create deals that satisfy their aspirations and expectations.

o Impasse is not necessarily bad or destructive (although it can be).

§ There are very good reasons parties sometimes choose to stay at impasse until a viable resolution can be recognized.

o Impasse does not have to be permanent.

§ If the content, context, process, or people are altered in some way – either intentionally or due to the passage of time – the negotiation can move out of impasse and toward resolution.

o Impasse can be tactical or genuine.

§ Tactical impasse is used to gain leverage or put pressure on the other party to make concessions.

§ Genuine impasse occurs when the parties feel unable to move forward.

§ Impasses that begin as tactical may become genuine.

o Impasse can be partial.

§ Impasse can affect some negotiation issues but not others – a partial impasse.

§ This may be a bigger obstacle in situations requiring agreement on all issues for a deal to occur, such as a divorce settlement.

§ And not as dire in situations where a deal can involve agreement on some issue but not on others, such as a treaty.

o Impasse perceptions can differ from reality.

§ The perception of impasse can be created by an intransigent negotiator looking to extract concessions from the other party

· Intransigence can be defined as a party’s unwillingness to move to any fallback position through concession or compromise.

§ Such toughness may lead to short-term gain if agreement ensues, but toughness that calls forth toughness in response, may lead to impasse.

B. What Causes Impasses and Intractable Negotiations?

· A negotiation becomes more tractable when it becomes easier to resolve, and intractable when it is more difficult to resolve.

· Intractable conflicts may vary along four dimensions:

o Divisiveness

§ The degree to which the conflict divides people, such that they are “backed into a corner” and can’t escape without losing face.

o Intensity

§ The level of participant involvement, emotionality, and commitment in a conflict

o Pervasiveness

§ The degree to which the conflict invades the social and private lives of people

o Complexity

§ The number and complexity of issues, the number of parties involved, the levels of social systems involved, and the degree to which it is impossible to resolve one issue without resolving several others at the same time.

· The factors that increase the likelihood of impasse are listed in Box 17.1.

o These can lead to an atmosphere charged with anger, frustration, and resentment.

o Channels of communication become closed or constrained.

o Communication is used to criticize or blame the other.

o The original issues are blurred and ill defined, with new issues added.

o Negotiators are identified with positions, and conflict is personalized.

· The parties tend to perceive great differences in their respective positions.

o Conflict heightens and as anger and tension increase, the parties become locked into their initial positions.

· Next we discuss four dimensions that cause negotiations to reach impasse: characteristics of the issues, the parties, the negotiation environment, and the negotiation setting.

C. Characteristics of the Issues

· Three characteristics that can have a particularly important influence are:

o Value differences

§ These vary from minor differences in preferences to major differences in ideology, lifestyle, or what is considered sacred and critical

§ The critical question is how individuals or groups with distinct differences in values choose to deal with these differences – force or accommodation and respect.

§ Many of the most intractable conflicts in society are rooted in core value differences.

o High-stakes distributive bargaining

§ Impasse may result from distributive bargaining when there is no apparent overlap in the bargaining range.

§ Many of these impasses are very responsive to the tactics we describe later in the chapter.

o Risk to human health and safety

§ Some negotiations reach impasse because the threat to human welfare is clear and the issues are rooted in complex science, difficult to believe or trust.

D. Characteristics of the Parties

How to Define the Self

o Issues of identity are central to many difficult-to-resolve negotiations.

§ Determined by how a person answers the questions “Who am I?”

§ Conflict is likely when people’s identities are threatened.

o Psychological processes involved in group identity is among the strongest causes of impasses.

§ Negotiators often adopt a stance based on role or a personal definition of ethics that is strongly related to self.

§ These stances readily lead to impasse when the other party does not share these characteristics.

Comparing the Self to Others

o Issues of social comparison reflect the way individuals define “Who are they?”

§ The development of your social identity is often inextricably linked to the process of comparing yourself to others.

§ Parties in conflict tend to fall trap to the fundamental attribution error – tending to blame others when things go wrong but taking personal credit for successes.

· Conversely, they tend to see others’ successes as due to luck but failures as due to the others’ defects and deficiencies.

o One study examined the effect of this social comparison process as it occurs in negotiation impasses, with two principal findings.

§ First, negotiators chose comparison groups to reflect a supportive, self-serving bias for their own positions by comparing themselves to others whose positions made their own demands seem fair and reasonable.

§ Second, the greater the perceived differences between the comparison groups, the greater the likelihood of a breakdown.

o Comparing with others can frequently lead to negotiation impasse in highly structured and departmentalized organizations.

§ For instance when the marketing department spends money it does not have, operations is slow to produce new product.

§ This can lead to impasse because of misinterpretations of communication based on department membership.

Perceptions of Power

o Negotiators may believe they can exercise coercive power to levy costs on the other party or force that party to accept a settlement not in their best interest.

§ The effectiveness of such a tactic clearly depends on the other party’s belief that the negotiator has such power and will use it.

o Impasses often result from the perceived need to negotiate simultaneously about change in power and the appropriate institutions for maintaining that power shift.

§ There has to be some give on both sides – particularly the high-power side – and a willingness to at least consider that the other party may have a legitimate interest and a valid perspective.

Revenge and Anger

o The escalation of conflict through revenge seems to be driven by three factors:

§ An interest in retribution to correct injustice;

§ The need to stand up and express one’s self-worth; and

§ The wish to deter future instances of undesirable behavior.

o These emotions and motivations exacerbate the tendency for conflict to escalate and for negotiations to break down completely.

§ Negotiators can refuse to meet in the same room with the other party – degrading physical presence, or refuse to acknowledge questions from the other party during negotiation – degrading intellectual presence

Conflict Management Styles

o Finally, impasses may also result from too little engagement in the negotiation, rather than too much

o One study observed that parties often prefer to avoid conflict in a number of creative ways:

§ Aggressive avoidance

· “Don’t start with me or you will regret it”

· Intimidate others to keep them away

§ Passive avoidance

· “I refuse to dance”

· Try to ignore the other

§ Passive aggressive avoidance

· “If you are angry at me, that’s your problem”

· Put the blame on the other party and walk away

§ Avoidance by claiming hopelessness

· “What’s the use…?”

§ Avoidance through surrogates

· “Let’s you and she fight”

· Deflect the conflict to an agent or representative to take the other on

§ Avoidance through denial

· “If I close my eyes, it will all go away”

· Make believe it isn’t there

§ Avoidance through premature problem solving

· “There is no conflict – I fixed everything”

§ Avoidance by folding

· “OK, we’ll do it your way, now can we talk about something else?”

o Note that these eight approaches can be used individually or combined.

§ The function is to avoid engaging in the conflict in a productive way.

E. Characteristics of the Negotiation Environment

· The third dimension that can cause negotiations to reach impasse includes characteristics of the negotiation environment.

o It is important that negotiators clearly understand what they are negotiating because this may be different for both parties.

o When negotiators learn they have very different understandings about what they are negotiating, the risk of impasse increases.

· Another environmental factor that can lead to impasse is the renegotiation of existing agreements.

o One study suggests that renegotiations of existing agreements occur frequently and are in response to three situations:

§ postdeal negotiations occur as the existing agreement is expiring

§ intradeal negotiations occur when an agreement states negotiations should be reopened at specific intervals

§ extradeal negotiations occur when it appears that there is a violation of the contract or in the absence of a contract reopening clause

· While all three types of renegotiations can lead to impasse, extradeal negotiations have the largest probability of doing so because they are generally the result of a large shift in the environment that has a much larger affect on one party than the other.

o The negatively affected party clearly is motivated to reopen negotiations, while the less affected negotiator sees no need to negotiate.

F. Characteristics of the Negotiation Setting

· The fourth set of reasons that negotiations reach impasse involve characteristics of the negotiation setting, which includes:

o Temporal issues

o Relational issues

o Cultural issues

· Very little has been written about how negotiation setting leads to impasses but experienced negotiators understand how changing the negotiation setting – the physical location in which it occurs – can be an important tactic for getting negotiations back on track.

o Alternatively, replacing an aggressive member of the negotiating team with a more collaborative member can signal to the other party a willingness to change the substance of the negotiation.

o Finally, timing is critical in a negotiation – compromises presented too early may be rejected outright.

II. Fundamental Mistakes That Cause Impasses

· One study outlined six fundamental mistakes that negotiators make that can derail the negotiation process and result in impasses.

o Neglecting the other side’s problem

§ Negotiators who do not ensure they are working to craft an agreement that satisfies the needs of both parties are making a mistake that can derail negotiations.

o Too much of a focus on price

§ Pay attention to both tangible and intangible factors.

o Positions over interests

§ Negotiations require both creating value and claiming value.

o Too much focus on common ground

§ A key aspect of negotiation is interdependence – the parties need to have enough in common to strike a deal.

o Neglecting BATNAs

§ Negotiators who do not work to improve their BATNAs will reduce their power in the current negotiation and may make it more difficult to reach agreement.

o Adjusting perceptions during the negotiation

§ Use information gathered throughout the negotiation to adjust your views – a challenging mistake to correct as many biases occur unconsciously.

· Another mistake that negotiators make during negotiations is that they do not proactively manage the negotiation process itself.

o Researchers suggest a major reason negotiations are not successful is that negotiators fail to manage what is labeled the shadow negotiation, a negotiation about the negotiation process that occurs within the substantive negotiation.

o Those who fail to manage the shadow negotiation finds they either cannot get the negotiation started or cannot get their issues discussed, increasing the chance of impasse.

· In a related vein, a study suggests that negotiators need to manage the social contract in addition to the economic issues under discussion or the negotiation may derail.

o The social contract has two components: the underlying contract determines what the negotiation is about, and the ongoing social contract is concerned with decision making, contingency plans, communication, and resolving disputes.

· Finally, research suggests that negotiations reach impasse when negotiators allow their emotions to determine their reaction to the other party, rather than responding in a measured way to the situation – instead of separating the people from the problem.

A. Preventing Impasses

· One of the best ways to resolve an impasse is to avoid having one occur.

o It may be possible to avoid an impasse at the last moment by being very aware of changes in the negotiation process.

o One study suggests seven signals to be especially aware of that may indicate an impending impasse – see Box 17.2, and below.

§ Monitor the interactive quality of the process, noting how each statement and action is linked to the next.

§ Pay special attention to the multiple levels of the negotiation, noting how identity and role are positioned as well as the substance.

§ Be attuned to the other party’s verbal and nonverbal cures – pitch of voice, speed of conversation, pauses, and verbal stumbles and signal internal emotions.

§ Be cautious in interpreting the behavior of others – explore alternative explanations of what is taking place – do not assume that others would respond as you would.

§ Face up to the facts when you are caught in unproductive cycles, rehashing old arguments and advocating old solutions.

§ Recognize your own trigger points, particularly things that make you lose perspective.

§ Anticipate change by imaging different scenarios – remember that past is not necessarily prologue.

III. How to Resolve Impasses

· The first two sections of this chapter focused on what causes negotiations to be difficult to resolve and approach impasse.

· We now turn to examining how to manage impasses, which need to be resolved on three levels: cognitive, emotional, and behavioral.

o Cognitive resolution is needed to change how the parties view the situation.

§ Cognitive resolution is often difficult to achieve because people tenaciously hang onto beliefs and perceptions in spite of new data to the contrary.

§ New information and explicit reframing are key to achieving cognitive resolution.

o Emotional resolution involves changing how parties feel about the impasse and the other party, as well as reducing the amount of emotional energy they put into the negotiation.

§ Emotional resolution often involves trust rebuilding, forgiveness, and apology.

o Behavioral resolution explicitly addresses what people will do in the future and how agreements they make about the future will be realized.

§ Behavioral resolution agreements should specify ways that the parties can stop difficult conflict dynamics, specify reparations, and include mechanisms for instituting new behaviors that prompt resolution.

· There are many ways to start to break an impasse – the key is to find a way to restart the process.

o This may be difficult and the first attempts may fail.

· In this section, we describe six strategies that can be used to resolve impasses.

o These strategies tend to focus on behavioral and cognitive resolution, but they also have an influence on emotional resolution:

§ Reaching agreement on rules and procedures

§ Reducing tension and synchronizing the de-escalation of hostility

§ Improving the accuracy of communication, particularly improving each party’s understanding of the other’s perspective

§ Controlling the number and size of issues in the discussion

§ Establishing common ground where parties can find a basis for agreement

§ Enhancing the desirability of the options and alternatives that each party presents to the other

· There is no standard recipe for resolving impasses, nor is there a standard approach that works every time.

o The authors suggest it is frequently productive to resolve negotiation impasses by using these strategies in the order presented here.

o This approach is by no means firm and inflexible and you may invoke the steps in a different order.

o However, the order presented here is one that third parties frequently use to resolve impasses, so it may be the most effective if used by the negotiators themselves.

A. Agreement on the Rules and Procedures

· Parties can try to manage impasses by obtaining mutual agreement about the rules that will govern the negotiation.

· Establishing ground rules might include the following steps:

o Determining a site for a meeting – changing the site or finding a neutral location

o Setting a formal agenda as to what may or may not be discussed, and agreeing to abide by that agenda.

o Determining who may attend the meetings.

§ Changing key negotiators or representatives may be a signal of the intention to change the negotiation approach.

o Setting time limits for the individual meeting and for the overall negotiation session

o Setting procedural rules, such as who may speak, how long they may speak, how issues will be approached, what facts may be introduced, how records of the meeting will be kept, how agreements will be affirmed, and what clerical or support services are required.

o Following specific dos and don’ts for behavior (e.g., don’t attack others).

· The parties may agree to set aside a short period during negotiations to critique how they are doing.

B. Reducing Tension and Synchronizing De-escalation

· Unproductive negotiations can easily become highly emotional – parties are frustrated, angry, and upset.

o The longer the parties debate, the more likely it is that emotions will overrule reason – verbal assaults replace logic and reason.

o When the negotiation becomes personalized, turning into a win-lose feud, all hope of a productive discussion is lost.

o Several approaches for resolving impasses are directed at defusing volatile emotions.

Separating the Parties

o The most common approach is to stop meeting – declare a recess, or agree to adjourn and come back later after a chance to unwind and reflect.

§ Each party should agree to return with a renewed effort to make deliberations more productive.

§ Taking a break without explicitly managing the purpose of the break, may actually have the opposite effect and increase the conflict.

o Separation may be a few minutes or weeks, with time periods related to the level of hostility and circumstances.

§ Parties can use the time to check with their constituencies, gather new information, and reassess their position and commitments.

Managing Tension

o Tension is a natural by-product of negotiations.

o Negotiators should be aware that it is bound to occur, and know how to manage it.

o It may be as simple as cracking a joke to relieve the tension, or letting the other party vent their frustration without responding.

Acknowledging the Other’s Feelings: Active Listening

o When one party states their views and the other openly disagrees, the first negotiator often hears the disagreement as more than just disagreement.

§ They may hear a challenge, a put-down, an assertion that their statement is wrong or unacceptable, an accusation of lying, or another form of personal attack.

§ Whether this was the message’s intention or not, the negotiator must deal with how it was received so as not to escalate the conflict.

o There is a difference between accurately hearing what the other party said and agreeing with it.

§ You can let them know you heard and understood, but that does not mean you agree – this technique is called active listening.

§ It is frequently used in interviews to encourage a person to speak freely.

§ Comments may include:

· You see the facts this way

· You feel very strongly about this point

· I can see that if you saw things this way, you would feel threatened and upset by what I have said

Synchronized De-escalation

o One party decides on a small concession that both parties could make to signal their good faith and desire to de-escalate.

o The party should then make a public announcement, stating:

§ Exactly what the concession is

§ That the concession is part of a deliberate attempt to reduce tension

§ That the other side is explicitly invited to reciprocate in a specified form

§ That the concession will occur on a stated time schedule

§ That each party commits to make the concession without knowing whether the other will reciprocate

o The party who initiated the de-escalation then makes the concession.

§ The specific concession should be obvious, unambiguous, and subject to easy verification.

§ If the other party does not respond, the initiator follows through with the action and repeats the sequence, trying to attract the other into synchronized de-escalation.

§ If the other does respond, the initiator proposes a second action, slightly riskier than the first, and again initiates the sequence.

§ As the synchronized de-escalation takes hold, the parties can both propose larger and riskier concessions.

§ A variation is to use this process, each negotiator choosing from a list of concessions provided by the other side.

C. Improving the Accuracy of Communication

· The third step in conflict reduction is to ensure that both parties accurately understand the other’s position.

o During impasses, listening becomes so poor the parties are unaware of what their positions have in common – labeled the “blindness of involvement.”

o Several approaches can be used to rectify this situation.

Role Reversal

o Role reversal helps negotiators put themselves in the other party’s shoes and look at the issue from their perspective.

§ Although it will not identify exactly how the other party thinks and feels about the issues, the process can provide useful and surprising insights.

§ For example, see Box 17.3 on managing offensive comments.

o One purpose of role reversal is to highlight areas of commonality and overlap between positions – however, compatibilities must actually exits.

§ Without compatibility, role reversal may simply sharpen the differences.

§ If the parties’ goals are incompatible, integrative negotiation is impossible, and the sooner that is known, the better.

§ Role reversal can be a powerful tool for uncovering the true goals of both parties and determining how the negotiation should proceed.

Imaging

o Imaging is another method for gaining insight into the other party’s perspective.

o Parties in conflict are asked to engage in the following activities separately:

§ Describe how you see yourself

§ Describe how the other party appears to you

§ State how you think the other party would describe you

§ State how you think the other party sees themselves

o Parties then exchange this information, in order.

§ A common result is the parties recognize that many apparent differences and areas of conflict are not real, and they begin to understand those that are real.

· The successful use of role reversal or imaging techniques can:

o Clarify and correct misconceptions and misinterpretations

o Bring to the surface both parties’ interests, goals, priorities, and limitations

o Set a positive tone for the negotiation

D. Controlling Issues

· As conflict intensifies, the size and number of the issues expand.

o The challenge for negotiators in impasses, is to develop strategies to contain issue proliferation and reduce the negotiation to manageable proportions.

o We discuss several strategies next.

Fractionate the Negotiation

o Fractionating is a method of issue control that involves dividing a large conflict into smaller parts – there are several approaches, and they work as follows:

§ Reduce the number of parties on each side.

· The sheer number of parties in the negotiation can increase the complexity of the negotiation substantially – lawyers, experts, etc.

· One way to manage a conflict that has escalated to impasse is to reduce the number of participants.

· Reducing to just two individuals increases the chance of settlement.

· Box 17.4 provides 12 ways to manage dueling experts.

§ Control the number of substantive issues involved.

· A second way to fractionate a conflict is to keep the number of issues small enough to manage.

· At the same time, limiting negotiation to very few issues also raise problems – they lead to win-lose polarization.

§ State issues in concrete terms rather than as principles.

· Resorting to arguments of principle and policy is often a tactic used by high-power parties against any change from the status quo

· The long the discussion remains at the level of principle, the less likely it is that it will become specific enough to be successfully resolved.

· There are times when a single event is indicative of a new principle or policy and negotiators should specifically address it.

· Attempting to negotiate a concrete issue when the negotiation really should address the broader principle may result in frustration.

· It this occurs, it is wise to face the underlying issue and raise it directly – there are at least two tactics that can be used:

o Questions whether the issue needs to be addressed at the principle or policy level and suggest the immediate concrete issue be handled separately from the underlying principle or policy

o Assert that exceptions can be made to all policies and that principles and policies can be maintained even if exceptions are made under special circumstances

§ Restrict the precedents involved, both procedural and substantive.

· Another way to fractionate the negotiation occurs when the parties treat concessions on a single issue as creating a substantive or procedural precedent.

· Procedural precedents are at stake when parties agree to follow a process they have not followed before.

· Issues of precedent can be as difficult to manage as issues of principle.

· Negotiators should try to prevent single issues from being translated into major questions of precedent.

§ Search for ways to divide the big issues.

· Negotiators should try to find ways to slice a large issue into smaller pieces, known as using salami tactics.

· Issues expressed in quantitative, measurable units are easy to slice.

§ Depersonalize issues: separate them from the parties advocating them.

· People become identified with positions on issues, and vice versa.

· Effective negotiation requires separating the issues from the parties.

· This is even more important when negotiations are at impasse.

E. Establishing Common Ground

· Parties in escalated conflict tend to magnify perceived differences and minimize perceived similarities.

· A fifth step that parties can take to de-escalate conflict is to establish common ground and focus on common objectives – several approaches are possible, listed below.

· In general, as the conflict de-escalates, it becomes possible to move to an approach that accommodates a mix of distributive and integrative strategies, and to reduce the use of purely distributive approaches.

Establish Superordinate Goals

o Superordinate goals are common goals; both parties desire them, and both parties must cooperate to achieve them – see Box 17.5.

o To have a constructive impact on negotiations, superordinate goals must be wanted by both parties and must not be seen as benefiting one more than the other.

o Random events or events created by neutral third parties generate better superordinate goals than those sought or planned by the parties involved.

§ Natural disasters bring people together with a common purpose of survival; the same impact can be seen in negotiation.

Align against Common Enemies

o Common enemies are a negative type of superordinate goal.

o The parties find new motivation to resolve their differences to avoid intervention by a third party, or to pool resources to defeat a common enemy.

o Common enemies have the capacity to establish common ground between parties, who can then work to resolve impasses.

Establish Common Expectations

o Parties can manage the social context by devising ground rules to govern their conflict.

§ When ground rules are poorly chosen and mismanaged, they become part of the conflict rather than a process for effectively managing conflict.

o A more effective process is to move from ground rules to “higher ground” by creating common and shared expectations – creating a “group covenant.”

o A group covenant addresses differences, clarifies expectations, and establishes ground rules for moving a group forward.

o There are six key elements to this process:

§ Establish the need for creating shared expectations.

§ Educate and inspire people to create a new covenant that all will agree to follow.

§ Envision desired outcomes for the future, and then develop common ground rules that will enable the group to reach the future.

§ Promote full participation by giving everyone a voice in the process.

§ Be accountable by honoring the agreements contained in the new covenant.

§ Evaluate, modify, revise, and recommit to these new principles as necessary.

Manage Time Constraints and Deadlines

o Time can be a source of power and leverage, but can also be an impediment.

o The remedies for managing time constraints and deadlines to de-escalate impasses are straightforward:

§ Conduct thorough and open problem diagnosis and issue identification to clarify the motives of both parties.

§ Address and identify the clearly distributive issues early enough so they are not a surprise as the deadline approaches.

§ Be generous in estimating the time necessary to conclude the negotiation, allowing extra time to manage difficult or linked issues.

§ Recognize tentative deadlines for what they are, consider benchmarking progress against the time allotted, and let both sides reconsider tentative settlements before closing the discussion.

§ Consider the possibility of extending a deadline set early in the negotiation – if the deadline is not movable, pay additional attention to timing, pacing and especially benchmarking progress

Reframe the Parties’ View of Each Other

o Frames shape and misshape the ways parties perceive difficult-to-resolve disputes and the processes available for their resolution.

o Parties must be able to gain perspective on the dispute.

o This perspective taking requires standing back, observing the negotiation, and reflecting on it in a way that allows parties to recognize there is more than one way to view the other party, the issues, and the process of resolving it.

Build Trust

o Strong, constructive bargaining relationships are typically marked by conditions of high trust and low distrust, and accompanied by low vigilance and low monitoring behaviors between the parties

o The trust produced by successful collaboration— based on enhanced knowledge of the other party and their needs—reinforces itself through multiple iterations of bargaining situations.

Search for Semantic Resolutions

o Negotiations may reach impasse over key words, phrases, and expressions – see Box 17.6.

o Discovering how parties attach different meanings to some words, and exploring language that can accommodate both sides, is another approach to moving beyond impasse.

Use Analogical Reasoning

o One study proposes that the metaphorical process of analogical reasoning (the illustrative use of analogies) provides considerable power to reframe intractable conflict.

§ Analogical reasoning is defined as the inferential process by which a resemblance, similarity, or correspondence, perceived between two or more things, suggests that they will probably agree in other ways as well.

o Several kinds of analogies may prove useful:

§ Direct analogies, in which the problem is placed or examined in a totally different field of information – “This conflict is like a can of worms.”

§ Fantasy analogies, in which the problem is restated in terms of a party’s fantasized or wished-for state – “I wish I could sweep this thing away like a pile of dust.”

§ Personal analogies, in which a party puts themselves in the problem situation, attempting to identify with it or empathize with those in the situation – “You must feel like a large picture in a small frame”

§ Symbolic analogies, in which a different, often graphic image is conjured up to focus attention and provide a starting point for more open discussion – “This conflict reminds me of trying to land an airplane whose landing gear won’t do down”

F. Enhancing the Desirability of Options to the Other Party

· The sixth step parties can use to de-escalate a conflict is to make their desires and preferences appear more palatable to the other.

· Rather than focusing on their own interests and positions, negotiators should focus on the other’s interests.

o One powerful way to do this is to focus on why the other party wants what they want.

o Once the needs are understood, negotiators should move toward the other party, instead of trying to get the other party to come to them.

o This can be done is most cases by making offers rather than demands and threats.

o Some suggested alternative strategies are discussed next.

Give the Other Party a “Yesable” Proposal

o Negotiators should direct efforts to understanding the other side’s needs and devising a proposal that will meet those needs.

o This can be called a “yesable” proposal, one to which the only answer can be, “Yes, it is acceptable.”

o To succeed, this approach requires negotiators to consider what the other party wants or would agree with, rather than exclusively considering their own goals and needs

Ask for a Different Decision

o Rather than making demands more general, negotiators should endeavor to make them more specific.

o Reformulate, repackage, reorganize, rephrase, fractionate, split, divide, or make more specific.

o Inventing and refining ways in which both parties can succeed greatly enhance the likelihood that both parties can select a desirable option.

Sweeten the Offer Rather Than Intensifying the Threat

o Negotiators can also make options more palatable by enhancing the attractiveness of accepting them – placing emphasis on the positive rather than the negative.

o The approach should make the carrot more attractive rather than enlarging the stick.

o Promises and offers can be made more attractive in several ways:

§ Maximizing the attractive qualities and minimizing the negative ones

§ Showing how the offer meets the other party’s needs

§ Reducing the disadvantages of accepting the offer

§ Making offers more credible by providing third-party references or factual support

§ Setting deadlines on offers so they expire if not accepted quickly

Use Legitimacy or Objective Criteria to Evaluate Solutions

o Finally, negotiators may insist that alternative solutions be evaluated by objective criteria that meet the tests of fairness and legitimacy.

o Negotiators on all sides should demonstrate that their demands are based on sound facts, calculations, and information and that preferred solutions are consistent with those facts and information.

o The more these data are open to public verification, the more convincing it will be that the position is independent of the negotiator who advocates it, and the more persuasive the positions will be in achieving a settlement.

G. Section Summary

· In this section, we reviewed six major strategies that negotiators can use to get derailed negotiations back on track and return to a more productive flow of events:

o Agreeing on the ground rules

o Reducing tension

o Improving communication

o Controlling issues

o Finding common ground

o Making options more attractive for joint resolution

· Taken together, these strategies create a large portfolio of alternative that negotiators can pursue to mange derailed discussions, enhance deteriorating communications, and find ways to invent acceptable solutions.

· These techniques are ways that parties can work together to overcome intractability and improve the odds that successful resolution can occur.

Chapter Summary

Through several different avenues—breakdowns in communication, escalation of anger and mistrust, polarization of positions and refusal to compromise, the issuance of ultimatums, or even the avoidance of conflict—negotiations can hit an impasse. Productive dialogue stops. The parties may continue talking, but the communication is usually characterized by trying to sell or force one’s own position, talking about the other’s unreasonable position and uncooperative behavior, or both. When these breakdowns occur, the parties may simply agree to recess, cool off, and come back tomorrow. More commonly, however, the parties break off negotiation and walk away angry and upset. Although they may privately wish there was some way to get back together, they usually don’t know how to start the reconciliation.

This chapter explored various reasons that conflicts become difficult to resolve and likely to reach impasse. The fundamental nature of difficult-to-resolve conflicts was discussed, as well as four dimensions that make them difficult to resolve: the characteristics of the issues, the characteristics of the parties, the negotiation environment, and the negotiation setting. We then examined several common mistakes that negotiators make that result in derailed negotiations and impasses. Finally, six strategies were suggested that the parties could use to attempt to resolve a dispute on their own.

The tools discussed in this chapter are broad in function and in application, and they represent self-help for negotiators in dealing with stalled or problematic exchanges. None of these methods and remedies is a panacea, and each should be chosen and applied with sensitivity to the needs and limitations of the situations and of the negotiators involved. Their successful application requires a significant amount of interpersonal communication skill. A truly confrontational breakdown, especially one that involves agreements of great impact or importance, sometimes justifies the introduction of individuals or agencies who themselves are not party to the dispute.

中国经济管理大学

中国经济管理大学官网：www.eauc.hk 中国经济管理大学 MBA公益课堂

中国经济管理大学 MOOC（慕课站）美华管理传播网：www.mhjy.net

Labor Relations and Collective Bargaining

Mon, 06 Jul 2026 14:19:23 +0800

中国经济管理大学 MBA 课堂笔记

Labor Relations and Collective Bargaining

中国经济管理大学/中國經濟管理大學

ANNOTATED OUTLINE

I. The Labor Movement

A little more than 14.8 million U.S. workers belong to a union—around 11.3 percent of all men and women working in this country.

A. Why Do Workers Organize? — The urge to unionize often seems to boil down to the belief on the part of workers that it is only through unity that they can get their fair share of the pie. It is sometimes the result of workers trying to protect themselves from management’s whims. Union workers tend to receive significantly more pay, holidays, sick leave, unpaid leave, insurance plan benefits, long-term disability benefits, and various other benefits than do nonunion workers. Unions seem to have reduced the impact of downsizings and wage cuts in most industries, in part because union employees are not entirely “at will.”

II. Employee Engagement Guide for Managers: Employee Engagement and Unionization

One might reasonably assume that because engaged employees are more supportive of their companies, they’re also less likely to support unionization.

A. What Do Unions Want? — Unions have two sets of aims, one for union security and one for improved wages, hours, working conditions, and benefits for their members.

1. Union Security — The five types of union security are: closed shop, union shop, agency shop, preferential shop, and maintenance of membership arrangement.

2. Improved Wages, Hours, Working Conditions, and Benefits for Members — The typical labor agreement also gives the union a role in other HR activities, including recruiting, selecting, compensating, promoting, training, and discharging employees.

B. The AFL-CIO and the SEIU

The American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) is a voluntary federation of about 56 national and international labor unions in the United States. The AFL and CIO merged in 1955. The three layers of structure in the AFL-CIO are: (1) the local union (a single chapter in a national union), (2) the national union, and (3) the national federation. The Service Employees International Union (SEIU) is a fast-growing federation of more than 2.2 million members principally in the health care and state and government workers. Changes have occurred recently in the AFL-CIO. Six big unions have withdrawn from the AFL-CIO and have established the Change to Win Coalition. Shortly thereafter, UNITE HERE left the Change to Win coalition possibly slowing Change to Win’s momentum.

III. Unions and the Law

There were no special labor laws until about 1930, so employers were virtually unrestrained in their behavior toward unions and employees. Since the Great Depression, in response to changing public attitudes, values, and economic conditions, labor law has gone through three clear changes: from strong encouragement of unions, to modified encouragement coupled with regulation, and finally, to detailed regulation of internal union affairs.

A. Period of Strong Encouragement: The Norris-LaGuardia Act (1932) and the National Labor Relations or Wagner Act (1935) — The Norris-LaGuardia Act guaranteed to each employee the right to bargain collectively free from interference, restraint, or coercion; but it did little to restrain employers from fighting labor organizations. The National Labor Relations (Wagner) Act of 1935 (1) banned certain unfair labor practices; (2) provided for secret-ballot elections and majority rule for determining whether a firm’s employees were to unionize; and (3) created the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) for enforcing these two provisions.

1. Unfair Employer Labor Practices — As deemed by the Wagner Act: (a) it is unfair for employers to interfere with, restrain, or coerce employees in exercising their legally sanctioned right of self-organization; (b) it is unfair for company representatives to dominate or interfere with either the formation or the administration of labor unions; (c) employers are prohibited from discriminating in any way against employees for their legal union activities; (d) employers are forbidden to discharge or discriminate against employees simply because the latter file unfair practice charges against the company; and (e) it is unfair for employers to refuse to bargain collectively with their employees’ duly chosen representatives.

2. From 1935 to 1947 — Union membership increased quickly after the passage of the Wagner Act in 1935, but the tide had begun to turn by the mid-1940s.

B. Period of Modified Encouragement Coupled with Regulation — The Taft-Hartley Act (1947) amended the Wagner Act with provisions aimed at limiting unions in four ways: (1) by prohibiting unfair union labor practices, (2) by enumerating the rights of employees as union members, (3) by enumerating the rights of employers, and (4) by allowing the president of the United States to temporarily bar national emergency strikes.

1. Unfair Union Labor Practices — (a) unions cannot restrain or coerce employees from exercising their guaranteed bargaining rights; (b) unions cannot cause an employer to discriminate in any way against an employee in order to encourage or discourage his or her membership in a union; and (c) unions cannot refuse to bargain in good faith with the employer about wages, hours, and other employment conditions (certain strikes and boycotts are also unfair union labor practices).

2. Rights of Employees — The Taft-Hartley Act protects employees from their unions.

3. Rights of Employers — The Taft-Hartley Act explicitly gives employers full freedom to express their views concerning union organization. The only major restraint is that employers must avoid threats, promises, coercion, and direct interference with workers who are trying to reach a decision. The employer (1) cannot meet with employees on company time within 24 hours of an election, or (2) suggest to employees that they vote against the union while they are at home or in the employer’s office, although he or she can do so while in their work area or where they normally gather.

4. National Emergency Strikes — The Taft-Hartley Act allows the U.S. president to intervene in national emergency strikes. The president may appoint a board of inquiry and, based on its report, apply for an injunction restraining the strike for 60 days. If the parties don’t reach a settlement during that time, the president can have the injunction extended for another 20 days, during which time employees take a secret ballot to ascertain their willingness to accept the employer’s last offer.

C. Period of Detailed Regulation of Internal Union Affairs — The Landrum-Griffin Act (1959) (officially, the Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act), an amendment to the Wagner Act, is aimed at protecting union members from possible wrongdoing on the part of their unions. This law provides a bill of rights for union members; lays out rules regarding union elections; regulates the kind of person who can serve as a union officer; greatly expands the list of unlawful employer actions; and requires reports from unions and employers, covering such practices as the use of labor relations consultants.

IV. The Union Drive and Election

A. Step 1. Initial Contact — The union determines the employees’ interest in organizing a union, and an organizing committee is established. The initiative for the first contact between the employees and the union may come from the employees, from a union already representing other employees of the firm, or from a union representing workers elsewhere. Once an employer becomes a target, a union official usually assigns a representative to assess employee interest. He or she identifies employees who would make a good organizing committee, and educates them on the benefits of forming a union, the law, procedures involved in forming a local union, and the issues management is likely to raise during a campaign. The union must follow certain rules when it starts contacting employees.

1. Labor Relations Consultants — Are outside advisors (such as law firms, researchers, psychologists, labor relations specialists, or public relations firms) used by both management and unions to provide advice and related services to assist in the winning of elections.

2. Union Salting — Is an organizing tactic by which full-time undercover union organizers are hired by unwitting employers. A U.S. Supreme Court decision held the tactic to be legal. Critics claim “salts” interfere with business operations and harass employees.

B. Step 2. Authorization Cards — Are necessary for the union to petition the NLRB for the right to hold an election. 30% of the eligible employees in an appropriate bargaining unit must sign before the union can petition the NLRB for an election. During this stage, both union and management typically use various forms of propaganda. However, neither side can threaten, bribe, or coerce employees, and an employer may not make promises of benefits to employees or make unilateral changes in terms and conditions of employment that were not planned prior to union organizing activity.

C. Step 3. The Hearing — One of three things can occur once the union collects the authorization cards: (1) no hearing is needed if the employer chooses not to contest union recognition, and a consent election is held immediately; (2) if the employer chooses not to contest the union’s right to an election, or scope of the bargaining unit, or which employees are eligible to vote in the election, no hearing is needed and the parties can stipulate an election; or (3) if an employer does wish to contest the union’s right, it can insist on a hearing to determine those issues. An employer’s decision about whether to insist on a hearing is a strategic one based on the facts of each case and whether it feels it needs additional time to develop a campaign to try to persuade a majority of its employees not to elect a union to represent them. The hearing addresses several issues. If the results of the hearing are favorable for the union, the NLRB will order holding an election, issue a Decision and Direction of Election notice to that effect, and send NLRB Form 666 to the employer to post, notifying employees of their rights.

D. Step 4. The Campaign — During this stage, the union and the employer appeal to employees for their votes, but neither side can threaten, bribe, or coerce employees.

1. The Supervisor’s Role in the Campaign — Supervisors are the first line of defense when it comes to the unionizing effort. Supervisors need some special training because they can discover the early signs of union activity or they can inadvertently take actions that hurt their employers’ union-related efforts. Supervisors must be knowledgeable about what they can and can’t do to legally hamper organizing activities.

2. Rules Regarding Literature and Solicitation — Employers can do the following: always bar nonemployees from soliciting during their work time (when the employee is on duty and not on a break); usually stop employees from soliciting other employees for any purpose if one or both employees are on paid-duty time and not on a break; bar nonemployees from the building’s interiors and work areas as a right of private property owners (excluding retail stores, shopping centers, and certain other employers); sometimes bar nonemployees from exterior private areas if there is a business reason and the reason is not just to interfere with union organizers; and deny on- or off-duty employees access to interior or exterior areas only if they can show the rule is required for reasons of production, safety, or discipline. Such restrictions are only valid if the employer doesn’t discriminate against the union.

E. Step 5. The Election — The election by secret ballot is held within 30 to 60 days after the NLRB issues its Decision and Direction of Election. The NLRB provides the ballots as well as the voting booth, and ballot box, and counts the votes and certifies the results of the election. The union becomes the employees’ representative if it wins the election by a majority of the votes cast.

F. How to Lose an NLRB Election

1. Asleep at the switch — Executives caught unaware.

2. Appointing a committee — Forming a committee slows down the process.

3. Concentrating on money and benefits — More often it is about treating the employees fairly.

4. Delegating too much to divisions — Must have centralized guidance.

V. The Collective Bargaining Process

A. What Is Collective Bargaining? — According to the Wagner Act, “For the purpose of (this act) to bargain collectively is the performance of the mutual obligation of the employer and the representative of the employees to meet at reasonable times and confer in good faith with respect to wages, hours, and terms and conditions of employment, or the negotiation of an agreement, or any question arising thereunder, and the execution of a written contract incorporating any agreement reached if requested by either party, but such obligation does not compel either party to agree to a proposal or require the making of a concession.” In plain language, this means that both management and labor are required by law to negotiate wages, hours, and terms and conditions of employment “in good faith.”

B. What Is Good-Faith Bargaining? — In collective bargaining, it means that both parties communicate and negotiate, that proposals are matched with counterproposals, and that both parties make every reasonable effort to arrive at an agreement. A violation of the requirement for good faith bargaining may include the following: surface bargaining or going through the motions without any real intention of completing a formal agreement; inadequate proposals and demands; withholding information; dilatory tactics or inordinately delaying the meeting or refusing to meet; failure to be willing to make concessions; and making unilateral changes in conditions.

C. The Negotiating Team — Both union and management send a negotiating team to the bargaining table. The union team has sounded out their members on their desires and conferred with union reps of related unions. The management team has “costed” out potential concessions, identified probable union demands, and used information from grievances and feedback from supervisors to determine potential demands and prepare counteroffers.

D. Bargaining Items — Labor law sets out categories of items that are subject to bargaining: mandatory, voluntary, and illegal items. Mandatory items are items that a party must bargain over if the other party introduces them. Voluntary (permissible) items are neither mandatory nor illegal; they become a part of the negotiations only through the joint agreement of both management and union. Illegal items are forbidden by law.

E. Bargaining Stages — (1) each side presents its demands; (2) there is a trade-off of demands, called trading points; (3) the parties form joint subcommittees to try to work out reasonable alternatives; (4) the parties reach an informal settlement, and each group goes back to its sponsor; and (5) once everything is in order, the parties fine-tune and sign a formal agreement.

F. Impasses, Mediation, and Strikes

An impasse may be declared if there are insurmountable disagreements, such as when one party’s demands are greater than the other’s offers. Three types of third-party interventions are used to overcome an impasse: mediation, fact-finding, and arbitration. With mediation, a neutral third party (fact-finder) tries to assist the principals in reaching agreement. A fact-finder is a neutral party who studies the issues in a dispute and makes a public recommendation of what a reasonable settlement ought to be. Arbitration (binding or non-binding) can guarantee a solution to an impasse because the arbitrator often has the power to determine and dictate the settlement terms. Various public and professional agencies make mediators and arbitrators available.

1. Strikes — A strike is a withdrawal of labor. There are four types of strikes: economic strike, unfair labor practice strike, wildcat strike, and sympathy strike. An economic strike results from a failure to agree on the terms of a contract that involve wages, benefits, and conditions of employment. Unfair labor practice strikes are called by unions to protest illegal conduct by the employer. A wildcat strike is an unauthorized strike occurring during the term of a contract. A sympathy strike occurs when one union strikes in support of the strike of another.

2. Other ways to deal with an impasse — Breaking an impasse includes corporate campaigns. A corporate campaign is an organized effort by the union that exerts pressure (such as a boycott) on the corporation by pressuring the company’s other unions, shareholders, directors, customers, creditors, and government agencies, often directly. A lockout is a refusal by the employer to provide opportunities to work. The company locks out the employees, prohibiting them from doing their jobs. During an impasse, both parties may seek an injunction if they believe that the other side is taking actions that could irreparably harm the other party. This is a judicial order calling for a cessation of certain actions deemed injurious.

G. The Contract Agreement — May be 20 to 30 pages or longer, and the main sections cover these subjects: (1) management rights, (2) union security and automatic payroll dues deduction, (3) grievance procedures, (4) arbitration of grievances, (5) disciplinary procedures, (6) compensation rates, (7) hours of work and overtime, (8) benefits: vacations, holidays, insurance, pensions, (9) health and safety provisions, (10) employee security seniority provisions, and (11) contract expiration date.

H. Contract Administration: Dealing with Grievances — Grievance handling, because no labor contract can ever be so complete that it covers all contingencies and answers all questions. Employees may use just about any factor involving wages, hours, or conditions of employment as the basis of a grievance.

1. The Grievance Process — Is specified in most collective bargaining contracts, which specifies the various steps in the procedure, time limits, and specific rules. Union grievance procedures differ from firm to firm. It is generally best, but not always possible, to develop a work environment in which grievances don’t occur in the first place. Doing so depends on being able to recognize, diagnose, and correct the underlying causes of potential employee dissatisfaction before they become grievances. Typical causes include allegedly unfair appraisals, inequitable wages, or poor communications.

VI. What’s Next for Unions?

A. Why the Union Decline? — The 1980s and 1990s were hard times for unions. About 35% of the nonfarm U.S. workforce belonged to unions by the 1960s. Today, that figure has dropped to about 11.8%. Global competition and new technologies have forced employers to cut costs and reduce inefficiencies, which has squeezed unions.

B. What Are Unions Doing About It? — Unions are becoming more aggressive, pressuring employers through class action lawsuits and pushing Congress to pass legislation (the Employee Free Choice Act), which would support a “card check” system. Instead of secret ballot elections, the union would win recognition when a majority of workers signed cards saying they want a union.

C. Cooperative Clauses — News reports tend to highlight adversarial labor-management relations. For example, General Motors and Toyota created a joint venture they called New United Motor Manufacturing Inc. (NUMMI). NUMMI and the United Auto Workers (UAW) agreed to run the plant based on a new cooperative philosophy. Cooperative agreements generally commit union and management to adapt one or more cooperative themes.

D. Strategies for Cooperative Labor-Management Relations — The question is, “What management strategy does an employer follow to foster such cooperation?” The answer is one that emphasizes the sorts of fairness and openness discussed earlier and in Chapter 12. As two researchers conclude, “…perceptions of a cooperative labor relations climate are positively influenced by procedural justice, the union’s willingness to adopt an integrative [cooperative] approach to bargaining, and management willingness to share information with the union.”

KEY TERMS

Closed shop A form of union security in which the company can hire only union members. This was outlawed in 1947 but still exists in some industries (such as printing).

Union shop A form of union security in which the company can hire nonunion people, but they must join the union after a prescribed period of time and pay dues. (If they do not, they can be fired.)

Agency shop A form of union security in which employees who do not belong to the union must still pay union dues on the assumption that union efforts benefit all workers.

Preferential shop Union members get preference in hiring, but the employer can still hire nonunion members.

Maintenance of membership Employees do not have to belong to the union. However, union

arrangement members employed by the firm must maintain membership in the union for the contract period.

Right to work The public policy in a number of states that prohibits union security of any kind.

Norris-LaGuardia Act This law marked the beginning of the era of strong encouragement of unions and guaranteed to each employee the right to bargain collectively “free from interference, restraint, or coercion.”

Wagner Act This law banned certain types of unfair labor practices and provided for secret-ballot elections and majority rule for determining whether or not a firm’s employees want to unionize.

National Labor Relations The agency created by the Wagner Act to investigate unfair labor

Board (NLRB) practice charges and to provide for secret-ballot elections and majority rule in determining whether a firm’s employees want a union.

Taft-Hartley Act A law prohibiting union unfair labor practices and enumerating the rights of employees as union members. It also enumerates the rights of employers.

National emergency Strikes that might “imperil the national health and safety.”

strikes

Landrum-Griffin Act A law aimed at protecting union members from possible wrongdoing on the part of their unions.

Union salting A union organizing tactic by which workers who are employed by a union as undercover union organizers are hired by unwitting employers.

Authorization cards In order to petition for a union election, the union must show that at least 30% of employees may be interested in being unionized. Employees indicate this interest by signing authorization cards.

Bargaining unit The group of employees the union will be authorized to represent.

Collective bargaining The process through which representatives of management and the union meet to negotiate a labor agreement.

Good-faith bargaining A term that means both parties are communicating and negotiating and that proposals are being matched with counterproposals with both parties making every reasonable effort to arrive at agreements. It does not mean that either party is compelled to agree to a proposal.

Voluntary (permissible) Items in collective bargaining over which bargaining is neither illegal nor

bargaining items mandatory—neither party can be compelled against its wishes to negotiate over those items.

Illegal bargaining items Items in collective bargaining that are forbidden by law; for example, the clause agreeing to hire “union members exclusively” would be illegal in a right-to-work state.

Mandatory bargaining Items in collective bargaining that a party must bargain over if the other

items party introduces them—for example, pay.

Mediation Labor relations intervention in which a neutral third party tries to assist the principals in reaching agreement.

Fact-finder In labor relations, a neutral party who studies the issues in a dispute and makes a public recommendation for a reasonable settlement.

Arbitration The most definitive type of third-party intervention, in which the arbitrator usually has the power to dictate the settlement terms.

Economic strike A strike that results from a failure to agree on the terms of a contract that involve wages, benefits, and other conditions of employment.

Unfair labor practice strike A strike aimed at protesting illegal conduct by the employer.

Wildcat strike An unauthorized strike occurring during the term of a contract.

Sympathy strike A strike that takes place when one union strikes in support of another.

Boycott The combined refusal by employees and other interested parties to buy or use the employer’s products.

Lockout A refusal by the employer to provide opportunities to work.

Co-determination Employees have the legal right to a voice in setting company policies. Workers elect their own representative to the supervisory board of the employer.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

13-1. Briefly describe the history and structure of the U.S. union movement. Students should outline the reasons that employees first unionized including the need for job security, better wages, hours, and working conditions. Also students should outline several of the early labor laws.

13-2. Discuss the nature of the major federal labor relations laws. This item can be assigned as a Discussion Question in MyManagementLab. Student responses will vary.

13-3. Discuss the main steps in the collective bargaining process. This item can be assigned as a Discussion Question in MyManagementLab. Student responses will vary.

13-4. Explain why union membership dropped, and what the prospects are for the union movement. The 1980s and 1990s were hard times for unions. About 35 percent of the nonfarm U.S. workforce belonged to unions by the 1960s. By today, that figure has dropped to about 11.8%. Global competition and new technologies have forced employers to cut costs and reduce inefficiencies, which has squeezed unions. Unions have become more aggressive in their recruitment efforts in faster growing industries such as health care and technology.

13-5. Why do employees join unions? What are the advantages and disadvantages of being a union member? Workers join unions because they tend to believe that it is only through unity that they can get their fair share of the pie and also protect themselves from management’s whims. Some of the advantages of being a union member are that they tend to receive significantly more pay, holidays, sick leave, unpaid leave, insurance plan benefits, long-term disability benefits, and various other benefits than do nonunion members. One disadvantage of being a union member is that management may decide to terminate union jobs if management and the union can’t come to an agreement.

13-6. What actions might make employers lose elections? Engaging in an unfair labor practice is a sure fire way to lose an election. The five sure ways to lose an election are listed and described in the text: (1) asleep at the switch; (2) appointing a committee; (3) concentrating on money and benefits; (4) industry blind spots; and (5) delegating too much to divisions or branches.

13-7. Describe important tactics you would expect the union to use during the union drive and election. Contacting and soliciting employees off the job and during breaks, picketing, using consultants to improve their public image, advertising, news spots, and forming an organizing committee of employees who they feel will be good leaders.

13-8. What is meant by good faith bargaining? Using examples, explain when is bargaining not in good faith? Good faith bargaining means that both parties are communicating and negotiating, and proposals are being matched with counterproposals with both parties making every reasonable effort to arrive at agreements. Examples of violations of good faith bargaining include: surface bargaining; inadequate concessions; inadequate proposals and demands; dilatory tactics; imposing conditions; making unilateral changes in conditions; bypassing the representative; committing unfair labor practices during negotiations; withholding information; and ignoring bargaining items.

13-9. Define impasse, mediation, and strike, and explain the techniques that are used to overcome an impasse. Impasse occurs when the parties are not able to move further toward settlement. Mediation is intervention in which a neutral third party tries to assist the principals in reaching agreement. A strike is the withdrawal of labor. An impasse might be overcome through mediation, fact-finders, arbitration, or the economic pressures of a strike or lockout.

INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP ACTIVITIES

13.10. You are the manager of a small manufacturing plant. The union contract covering most of your employees is about to expire. Working individually or in groups, discuss how to prepare for union contract negotiations. You need to know what good faith bargaining is and what constitutes a violation of good faith bargaining. Although as a supervisor you will not likely be involved in the negotiations, you can commit violations of good faith bargaining such as making a unilateral change in working conditions, or the commission of an unfair labor practice. Also you need to be a vehicle to give information about employee attitudes and concerns to those conducting the bargaining. The list given in the chapter provides a good summary of how to prepare for bargaining.

13-11. Working individually or in groups, use Internet resources to find situations where company management and the union reached an impasse at some point during their negotiation process, but eventually resolved the impasse. Describe the issues of both sides that led to the impasse. How did they move past the impasse? What were the final outcomes? The students should be able to find several examples in the airline industry, professional sports industry, and the package delivery industry just to mention a few.

13-12. Several years ago, 8,000 Amtrak workers agreed not to disrupt service by walking out, at least not until a court hearing was held. Amtrak had asked the courts for a temporary restraining order, and the Transport Workers Union of America was actually pleased to postpone its walkout. The workers were apparently not upset at Amtrak, but at Congress, for failing to provide enough funding for Amtrak. What, if anything, can an employer do when employees threaten to go on strike, not because of what the employer did, but what a third party—in this case, Congress—has done or not done? What laws would prevent the union from going on strike in this case? Employers can do several things, none of which are explained in this chapter. They can seek an injunction from a judge, they can file suit, they can seek to meet with the union and help them with their demands against the third party, and so on. There are some laws and executive orders that prevent certain workers (transportation as well as safety and security personnel) from striking. The only one mentioned in this chapter is the Taft-Hartley Act, which allows the President of the United States to temporarily bar national emergency strikes.

13-13. The Kaiser Permanente Health System is often held out as an employer with very good labor relations. What can you discern from websites such as www.kaiserpermanentejobs.org/jobs.aspx that might explain such a reputation? The website appears to convey a workplace which values open, honest, and direct communication with staff. Information not only flows downward but upward as well.

13-14. What does www.seiu.org/ tell you about this union’s aims and how they intend to achieve them? The SEIU will continue to act strategically in recruiting areas of the workforce which either appear to be growing or are in need of third-party representation. Recently, the SEIU has targeted areas such as health care and other traditionally underrepresented groups of employees.

13-15. The PHR and SPHR Knowledge Base Appendix (pages 483-491) lists the knowledge someone studying for the HRCI certification exam needs to have in each area of human resource management (such as in Strategic Management, Workforce Plan-ning, and Human Resource Development). In groups of four to five students, do four things: (1) review that appendix now; (2) identify the material in this chapter that relates to the required knowledge the appendix lists; (3) write four multiple-choice exam questions on this material that you believe would be suitable for inclusion in the HRCI exam; and (4) if time permits, have someone from your team post your team’s questions in front of the class, so the students in other teams can take each others’ exam questions. The material in this chapter that relates to the HRCI certification exam includes: unions and the law, the union drive and election, the collective bargaining process, and the future of unions? A sample question, answer, and explanation is available from http://www.certgear.com/products/preview/sphr_certification/index.html. Multiple-choice questions should reflect material in this chapter and should have answer choices which could appear plausible.

Students can find the following assisted-graded writing questions at mymanagementlab.com:

13-16. Explain in detail each step in a union drive and election.

13-17. Briefly illustrate how labor law has gone through a cycle of repression and encouragement.

APPLICATION EXERCISES

HR in Action Case Incident 1: Negotiating with the Writers’ Guild of America

13-18. The producers said the WGA was not bargaining in good faith. What did they mean by that, and do you think the evidence is sufficient to support the claim? Good faith bargaining is a term that means both parties are communicating and negotiating and that proposals are being matched with counterproposals, with both parties making every reasonable effort to arrive at agreements. It does not mean that either party is compelled to agree to a proposal. There is evidence, it seems, to agree with this statement. Students’ answers will vary, but they should show an understanding of good faith bargaining.

13-19. The WGA did eventually strike. What tactics could the producers have used to fight back once the strike began? What tactics do you think the WGA used? The producers could have: (1) halted their operations until the strike was over, (2) contracted out the work during the duration of the strike in order to blunt the effects of the strike, (3) continued operations using non-striking personnel as writers, and (4) hired replacements for the strikers.

13-20. This was basically a conflict between professional and creative people (the WGA) and TV and movie producers. Do you think the conflict was therefore different in any way than are the conflicts between, say, the auto workers or teamsters unions against auto and trucking companies? Why? Students’ answers will vary. Although the negotiation process is the same between any two parties, the difference lies in the framing of the situation. It is difficult to quantify the contribution of a creative writer for the final product. This will require a greater deal of attention at the negotiation table.

13-21. What role did negotiating skills seem to play in the WGA–producers’ negotiations? Provide examples. It appears that very few negotiation skills were used by the WGA. Rather than negotiating with the producers, they timed their strike deliberately to impact the television production cycle—making a huge impact.

HR in Action Case Incident 2: Carter Cleaning Company: The Grievance

13-22. Do you think it is important for Carter Cleaning Company to have a formal grievance process? Why or why not? Certainly, it is important for many reasons. First, it is important from a standpoint of justice and fair treatment. Second, the lack of justice and fair treatment is a prime catalyst for union activity.

13-23. Based on what you know about the Carter Cleaning Company, outline the steps in what you think would be the ideal grievance process for this company. Because it is a small company, it should be simple and short. One suggestion is a two-step process that begins with a written appeal to the store manager. The second step is to send that appeal to Jennifer and her dad for review.

13-24. In addition to the grievance process, can you think of anything else that Carter Cleaning Company might do to make sure that grievances and gripes such as this one are expressed and also are heard by top management? The grievance procedure is critical. Students may identify many things from the previous chapter’s sections on justice and fair treatment.

Experiential Exercise: An Organizing Question on Campus

Purpose: The purpose of this exercise is to give you practice in dealing with some of the elements of a union organizing campaign.

Required Understanding: You should be familiar with the material covered in this chapter, as well as the following incident.

Art Tipton is a human resources director of Pierce University, a private university located in a large urban city. Ruth Ann Zimmer, a supervisor in the maintenance and housekeeping services division of the university, has just come into his office to discuss her situation. Zimmer’s division of the university is responsible for maintaining and cleaning physical facilities of the university. Zimmer is one of the department supervisors who supervise employees who maintain and clean on-campus dormitories.

In the next several minutes, Zimmer proceeds to express her concerns about a union-organizing campaign that has begun among her employees. According to Zimmer, a representative of the Service Workers Union has met with a number of the employees, urging them to sign union authorization cards. She has observed several of her employees “cornering” other employees to talk to them about joining the union and urging them to sign union authorization (or representation) cards. Zimmer even observed this during the working hours as employees were going about their normal duties in the dormitories. Zimmer says a number of employees have asked her for her opinions about the union. They reported to her that several other supervisors in the department had told their employees not to sign any union authorization cards and not to talk about the union at any time while they were on campus. Zimmer also reports that one of her fellow supervisors told his employees in a meeting that anyone who was caught talking about the union or signing a union authorization card would be disciplined and perhaps terminated.

Zimmer says that the employees are very dissatisfied with their wages and many of the conditions that they have endured from students, supervisors, and other staff people. She says that several employees told her that they had signed union cards because they believed that the only way university administration would pay attention to their concerns was if the employees had a union to represent them. Zimmer says that she made a list of employees whom she felt had joined or were interested in the union, and she could share these with Tipton if he wanted to deal with them personally. Zimmer closes with the comment that she and other department supervisors need to know what they should do in order to stomp out the threat of unionization in their department.

How to Set Up the Exercise/Instructions: Divide the class into groups of four or five students. Assume that you are labor relations consultants retained by the college to identify the problems and issues involved and to advise Art Tipton about what to do next. Each group will spend about 45 minutes discussing the issues and outlining those issues as well as an action plan for Tipton. What should he do now? If time permits, a spokesperson from each group should list on the board the issues involved and the groups recommendation.

This case provides an opportunity for the students to understand the union election process. Students should begin by understanding the reasons the university would be opposed to the union. In their role as labor relations consultants, they should begin by explaining the legal obligations and restrictions on the employer in the union organizing process. The university must understand that some of their tactics could be considered unfair labor practices. The students should recommend some kind of training for the supervisors and may outline what that training should include. They should also include guidance on informing the employees of what they can and can’t do during the campaign.

WEB-e’s (WEB EXERCISES)

1. Look at the careers sections of websites for several companies abroad, such as for Wal-mart China (www.wal-martchina.com/english/career/career.htm). What differences possibly caused by cultural differences do you see from what you might expect in the U.S. units of these companies? It appears that issues such as employee respect, ongoing sustainability programs, social responsibility, and environmental programs to support the globe are important issues indicated on the Wal-mart website/China.

2. Go to websites of vendors such as Kwintessential (www.kwintessential.co.uk/cultural-services/articles/expat-cultural-training.html) who offer cross-cultural training to expatriates going abroad. What sorts of issues do they discuss that expats should be prepared for? Do the vendors differ in how they prepare train expats? If so, how? Cross-cultural training can and does reduce the chances of expatriate relocations going wrong. Employees have now realized the importance of intercultural understanding and its potential impact upon relocations, as highlighted on the website. Cultural training aids the employee and family to better approach and deal with the relocation, ensuring that the negative consequences of “culture shock” are greatly reduced. The vendors offer most of the same programs with some emphasizing more on cultural differences.

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES

1. What motivated the merger of the AFL-CIO? Clearly, both sides believed in the concept of the power of numbers. The combined union would double both its membership and ability to negotiation on behalf of its members.

2. Explain the concept of a National Emergency Strike. The Taft-Hartley Act allows the current U.S. president to intervene in a strike that might imperil the health or safety of our nation. The president may appoint a board of inquiry and, based on its report, apply for an injunction restraining the strike for 60 days. During this period, employees are polled in a secret ballot to ascertain their willingness to accept the employer’s last offer.

3. In teams of five to six students, choose an organization (such as their university, or a company in which one student works), and list the areas in which the union has had an impact. Students should really look into the organization and see what impacts unions have made. Students should outline the current culture of the organization and elaborate on the current employee climate as well as the future of negotiations between administration and the union.

中国经济管理大学

中国经济管理大学官网：www.eauc.hk 中国经济管理大学 MBA公益课堂

中国经济管理大学 MOOC（慕课站）美华管理传播网：www.mhjy.net

Managing Careers

Mon, 06 Jul 2026 14:17:24 +0800

中国经济管理大学 MBA 课堂笔记

Managing Careers

中国经济管理大学/中國經濟管理大學

ANNOTATED OUTLINE

I. Career Management

We may define career as the occupational positions a person has had over many years. Career management is a process for enabling employees to better understand and develop their career skills and interests, and to use these skills and interests more effectively. Career development is the lifelong series of activities that contribute to a person’s career exploration, establishment, success, and fulfillment. Career planning is the deliberate process through which someone becomes aware of personal skills, interests, knowledge, motivations, and other characteristics and establishes action plans to attain specific goals.

A. Careers Today ¾ Recessions, mergers, outsourcing, consolidations, and more or less endless downsizing have changed the ground rules. More often employees find themselves having to reinvent themselves.

B. Psychological Contract ¾ What the employer and employee expect of each other is part of what psychologists call a psychological contract. The psychological contract identifies each party's mutual expectations.

C. The Employee’s Role in Career Management ¾ An individual must accept responsibility for his/her own career; assess his/her own interests, skills, and values; and take the steps required to ensure a happy and fulfilling career.

1. Exercise 1 ¾ One useful exercise for identifying occupational skills is to write a short essay describing tasks that you are good at doing at school or work.

2. Exercise 2 ¾ Another exercise is to write about the job you would pick if you could have any job.

D. The Employer’s Role in Career Management ¾ Employers can support career development efforts in many ways. The means for helping to further an employee’s career depends on the length of time the employee has been with the firm. This may occur before hiring or on the job.

E. Employer Career Management Methods ¾ Career development systems needn’t be complicated. Just receiving performance feedback, having individual development plans, and having access to nontechnical skills training is enough for most employees, but a large portion of companies do not provide these services. Employers can provide career planning workshops, lifelong learning accounts, and career coaching.

F. Gender Issues in Career Development ¾ Women and men still face different challenges as they advance in their careers. Women have more difficulty getting developmental assignments and geographic mobility opportunities. Many call this combination of subtle and not-so-subtle barriers to women’s progress the glass ceiling. Organizations need to be aware of it and try to eliminate it.

G. The Manager’s Role in Employee Career Development ¾ The manager can do several things to support his or her subordinates’ career development needs: schedule regular performance appraisal, make expectations clear, and focus on the extent to which the employee’s current skills and performance match career aspirations.

H. Small Business Applications ¾ There is much a small business owner can do to facilitate employee career development. Small business owners should be more attuned to her or his employees’ strengths, weaknesses, and aspirations.

II. Improving Coaching Skills

Coaching</keyterm></link> means educating, instructing, and training subordinates. Mentoring</keyterm></link> means advising, counseling, and guiding. Coaching involves teaching shorter-term, job-related skills. Mentoring focuses on helping employees navigate longer-term career hazards.

A. How to Be an Effective Coach ¾ Coaching does not mean just telling someone what to do. Coaching is a four-step process: <emphasis>preparation, planning, active coaching,</emphasis> and <emphasis>follow-up</emphasis>.

B. Being a Better Mentor ¾ Mentoring may be formal or informal. Either form can be successful. Effective mentors set high standards, are willing to invest the time and effort required, and actively steer protégé’s.

1. The Protégé’s Responsibilities ¾ The protégé is still responsible for making the relationship work.

C. Improving Productivity through HRIS ¾ Integrating Talent Management and Career and Succession Planning ¾ Various software systems enable employers to integrate these important programs. HRIS programs can assist with 360 feedback, career development, compensation management, career progression, learning management, performance management, and recruiting and hiring.

III. Employee Engagement Guide for Managers

A. Career Management ¾ The globalization of the world economy has resulted in workplace efficiencies that often lead to downsizing and increased unemployment.

B. The New Psychological Contract ¾ Many employees today consider themselves free agents. Employers have to think through how they’re going to maintain employee engagement in the face of potential downsizings, and thereby minimize voluntary departures, and maximize employee effort.

C. Commitment-Oriented Career Development Efforts ¾ The employer’s career development process should send the signal that the employer cares about the employee’s career success, and thus deserves the employee’s engagement.

IV. Managing Employee Retention and Turnover

Turnover is an expensive cost for organizations. Understanding more about the costs and causes of turnover is crucial for companies.

A. Costs of Turnover ¾ There are tangible and intangible costs associated with turnover. Reducing turnover requires identifying and managing the reasons for both voluntary and involuntary turnover.

B. Managing Voluntary Turnover ¾ Voluntary turnover occurs for many reasons including job dissatisfaction, poor pay, a lack of promotional opportunities, work-life balance issues, and inadequate health-care benefits.

C. Retention Strategies for Reducing Voluntary Turnover ¾ Retaining employees is a talent management issue, and the best retention strategies are therefore multifunctional.

D. A Comprehensive Approach to Retaining Employees ¾ A retention program should start with periodically tracking why top performers leave. Employees leave for a variety reasons. Programs should address careers, professional development, pay, benefits, recognition, and other work practices.

E. Social Media and HR ¾ Social media tools have changed the engagement/retention process.

F. Job Withdrawal ¾ Withdrawal in general means separating oneself from one’s current situation.

1. Dealing with Job Withdrawal ¾ A manager can think of withdrawal-reducing strategies in terms of reducing the job’s negative effects and/or raising its positive effects.

V. Managing Promotions and Transfers

Promotions usually provide opportunities to reward the exceptional performance of tested and loyal employees. However, unfairness, arbitrariness, or secrecy can diminish the effectiveness of the promotion process for all concerned.

A. Decision 1: Is Seniority or Competence the Rule? Today’s focus on competitiveness favors competence. However, union agreements and civil service regulations often emphasize seniority.

B. Decision 2: How Should We Measure Competence? Define the job, set standards, use one or more appraisal tools to record the employee’s performance, and use a valid procedure for predicting a candidate’s potential for future performance. The 9-box assessment is an example of a tool.

C. Decision 3: Is the Process Formal or Informal? Each firm will determine whether the promotional process is formal or informal.

D. Decision 4: Vertical, Horizontal, or Other? Promotions can be vertical (within the same functional area) or horizontal (in different functional areas).

E. Diversity Counts – <para>The Gender Gap ¾ Women still don’t reach the top of the career ladder in numbers proportionate to their numbers in U.S. industry. Employers need to eliminate the barriers that impede women’s career progress.

F. Managing Transfers ¾ Transfers are moves from one job to another, usually with no change in salary or grade. The frequent relocating of transfer employees has been assumed to have a damaging effect on the transferees’ family life.

G. Managing Retirements ¾ Retirement planning is no longer just for helping current employees transition to retirement. It can also enable the employer to retain, in some capacity, the skills of those who would normally retire and leave the firm.

1. Methods ¾ Employers should institute HR policies that encourage and support older workers.

VI. Managing Dismissals

Dismissal is the involuntary termination of an employee’s employment with the firm.

A. Termination at Will ¾ Termination at will means that without a contract, either the employer or the employee could terminate at will the employment relationship. Wrongful discharge refers to a dismissal that violates the law or that fails to comply with contractual arrangements stated or implied by the employer, for instance, in employee manuals. Exceptions include statutory exceptions, common law exceptions, and public policy exceptions.

B. Grounds for Dismissal ¾ There are four bases for dismissal. They include unsatisfactory performance, misconduct, lack of qualifications for the job, or changed requirements of the job. Insubordination is also often grounds for termination. Managers should take steps to make sure dismissals are fair.

C. Avoiding Wrongful Discharge Suits ¾ Wrongful discharge occurs when an employee’s dismissal does not comply with the law or with the contractual arrangement. Avoiding wrongful discharge suits requires a two-pronged approach. First, set up employment policies and dispute resolution procedures that make employees feel they are treated fairly.

D. Supervisory Liability ¾ Courts sometimes hold managers personally liable for their supervisory actions.

1. Steps to Take ¾ Managers should follow company policies.

2. Outplacement Counseling ¾ Outplacement counseling is a systematic process by which a terminated worker is trained and counseled in the techniques of conducting a self-appraisal and securing a new job appropriate to his or her needs and talents.

3. Exit Interview ¾ Many employers conduct exit interviews with information about the job or related matters that might give the employer a better insight into what is right—or wrong—about the company.

4. The Exit Process ¾ The employer should follow a checklist.

E. Layoffs and the Plant Closing Law ¾ The WARN Act requires employers of 100 or more employees to give 60 days notice before closing a facility or starting a layoff of 50 people or more. It simply gives employees time to seek other work or retraining by giving them advance notice of the shutdown.

1. The Layoff Process ¾ Companies should follow a process such as senior management making strategic decisions, followed by a supervisory process to make decisions and notify employees.

F. Adjusting to Downsizings and Mergers ¾ Downsizing means reducing, usually dramatically, the number of people the firm employs to better their financial position. Yet many firms discover operating earnings don’t rise after major cuts. Low morale among those remaining may be part of the problem. Some guidelines for implementing a reduction in force are provided.

KEY TERMS

Career The occupational positions a person has had over many years.

Career management The process for enabling employees to better understand and develop their career skills and interests, and to use these skills and interests more effectively.

Career development The lifelong series of activities that contribute to a person’s career exploration, establishment, success, and fulfillment.

Career planning The deliberate process through which someone becomes aware of personal skills, interests, knowledge, motivations, and other characteristics and establishes action plans to attain specific goals.

Reality shock Results of a period that may occur at the initial career entry when the new employee’s high job expectations confront the reality of a boring, unchallenging job.

Coaching Educating, instructing, and training subordinates.

Mentoring Advising, counseling, and guiding.

9-box matrix In workforce planning, this displays three levels of current job performance (exceptional, fully performing, not yet fully performing) across the top, and also shows three levels of likely potential (eligible for promotion, room for growth in current position, not likely to grow beyond current position) down the side.

Transfer Reassignments to similar positions in other parts of the firm.

Dismissal Involuntary termination of an employee’s employment within the firm.

Terminate at will The idea, based on law, that the employment relationship can be terminated at will by either the employer or the employee for any reason.

Insubordination Willful disregard or disobedience of the boss’s authority or legitimate orders.

Wrongful discharge An employee dismissal that does not comply with the law or does not comply with the contractual arrangement stated or implied by the firm via its employment application forms, employee manuals, or other promises.

Termination interview The interview in which an employee is informed of the fact that he or she has been dismissed.

Outplacement counseling A systematic process by which a terminated person is trained and counseled in the techniques of self-appraisal, career management, networking, and securing a new position.

Exit interviews Interviews conducted by the employer immediately prior to the employee leaving the firm with the aim of better understanding what the employee thinks about the company.

Layoff A situation in which employees are told there is no work for them but that management intends to recall them when work is again available.

Downsizing Refers to the process of reducing, usually dramatically, the number of people employed by the firm.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

9-1. Why it is advisable for an employee retention effort to be comprehensive? To what extent does IBM’s on-demand program fit that description and why? Retaining quality employees is important to firm success because 1) great employees do great work, and 2) turnover is expensive. Student answers will vary, but IBM’s system is a comprehensive plan to increase retention.

9-2. Explain why employee engagement is important, and how to foster such engagement. What exactly would you as a supervisor do to increase your employee’s engagement? This item can be assigned as a Discussion Question in MyManagementLab. Student responses will vary.

9-3. What is the employee’s role in the career development process? The manager’s role? The employer’s role? Employees must understand that it is their role to take charge of their own career development. The manager should support the employee’s career development needs and schedule regular performance appraisals. The employer’s role depends on how long the employee has been with the organization, but it should include providing a process and a structure to develop employee careers.

9-4. List and discuss the four steps in effectively coaching an employee. How could (and would) a professional football coach apply these steps? This item can be assigned as a Discussion Question in MyManagementLab. Student responses will vary.

9-5. Discuss at least four procedural suggestions for managing dismissals effectively. First, realize there are statutory exceptions. Statutory exceptions include federal and state equal employment and workplace laws that prohibit certain dismissals. Second, many dismissals start with bad hiring decisions. Using assessment tests, reference and background checks, drug testing, and clearly defined jobs can reduce the need for dismissals. Third, either the employer or the employee can terminate the employment relationship at will. Three main protections against wrongful discharge eroded the termination-at-will doctrine—statutory exceptions, common law exceptions, and public policy exceptions. Fourth, terminated employees are less likely to sue if they believe you treated them fairly. Therefore, use practices (like those we listed in the chapter) that help ensure the fairness of the dismissal. Fifth, follow company policies and procedures. An employee may initiate a claim against a supervisor who he or she alleges did not follow policies and procedures. Sixth, administer the discipline in a manner that does not add to the employee’s emotional hardship (as would having them publicly collect their belongings and leave the office). Seventh, do not act in anger, since doing so undermines both the reality and the appearance of objectivity. Finally, utilize the HR department for advice in regarding how to handle difficult disciplinary matters.

9-6. Is it advantageous to take a talent management approach to managing employee retention? Why or why not? Yes, it is highly advantageous for a firm to use an organized and disciplined approach to manage talent. Talent management is the goal-oriented and integrated process of planning, recruiting, developing, appraising, and compensating employees. Several practices distinguish talent management. These include using the same profile or list of skills and competencies for recruiting someone for the job as for selecting, training, appraising, and compensating that person, as well as actively managing how employees are recruited, selected, trained, appraised, and paid. Organizations that use such an approach, aligning strategy to performance, produce improved results. Additionally, such firms will tend to attract more top talent in the recruiting process than their competitors.

9-7. What would you as a supervisor do to avoid someone accusing you of wrongful dismissal? Protecting against wrongful discharge suits requires two things: following procedural steps, and fairness safeguards. First, lay the groundwork to help avoid such suits. Procedural steps include: have applicants sign the employment application; review your employee manual to delete statements that could undermine your defense; have written rules listing infractions; if a rule is broken, get the worker’s side of the story in front of witnesses; be sure that employees get a written appraisal at least annually; keep careful confidential records; and finally, ask the questions listed in Figure 9.6.

INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP ACTIVITIES

9-8. Many rightfully offer IBM as an example of an employer that works hard to improve employee retention and engagement. Browse through the employment pages of IBM.com’s Web site (such as http://www-03.ibm.com/employment/build_your_career.html). In this chapter, we discussed actions employers can take to improve employee retention and engagement. From the information on IBM’s Web pages, what is IBM doing to support retention and engagement? Look for students to integrate the principles in this chapter in their analysis and suggestions.

9-9. In groups of four or five students, meet with one or two administrators and faculty members in your college or university, and, based on this, write a two-page paper on the topic, “The faculty promotion process at our college.” What do you think of the process? Could you make any suggestions for improving it? Look for students to integrate the principles in this chapter in their analysis and suggestions.

9-10. Working individually or in groups, choose two occupations (such as management consultant, HR manager, or salesperson) and use some of the sources such as O*NET to make an assessment of the future demand for this occupation in the next 10 years or so. Does this seem like a good occupation to pursue? Why or why not? Students should be able to support their conclusions with data and information from these sources.

9-11. In groups of four or five students, interview a small business owner or an HR manager with the aim of writing a two-page paper addressing the topic “Steps our company is taking to reduce voluntary employee turnover.” What is this employer’s turnover rate now? How would you suggest it improve its turnover rate? Look for students to integrate the principles in this chapter in their analysis and suggestions.

9-12. The PHR and SPHR Knowledge Base appendix at the end of this book (pp. 483–491) lists the knowledge someone studying for the HRCI certification exam needs to have in each area of human resource management (such as in Strategic Management, Workforce Planning, and Human Resource Development). In groups of four to five students, do four things: (1) review that appendix now; (2) identify the material in this chapter that relates to the required knowledge the appendix lists; (3) write four multiple-choice exam questions on this material that you believe would be suitable for inclusion in the HRCI exam; and (4) if time permits, have someone from your team post your team’s questions in front of the class, so the students in other teams can take each others’ exam questions. Material that would be relevant to the exam includes the sections on career development programs, career records/job posting systems, managing fair treatment, grounds for dismissal, avoiding wrongful discharge suits, termination interviews, layoffs and the plant closing law, and retirement.

9-13. Several years ago, a survey of college graduates in the United Kingdom found that although many hadn’t found their first jobs, most were already planning “career breaks” and to keep up their hobbies and interests outside work. As one report of the findings put it, “the next generation of workers is determined not to wind up on the hamster wheel of long hours with no play.” Part of the problem seems to be that many already see their friends “putting in more than 48 hours a week” at work. Career experts reviewing the results concluded that many of these recent college grads “are not looking for high-pay, high-profile jobs anymore.” Instead they seem to be looking to “compartmentalize” their lives; to keep the number of hours they spend at work down, so that they can maintain their hobbies and outside interests. So, do you think these findings are as popular in the United States as they appear to be in the United Kingdom? If so, if you were mentoring one of these people at work, what three specific bits of career advice would you give to him or her? Why? What (if anything) would you suggest their employers do to accommodate there graduates’ stated career wishes? The advice needs to be relevant to the issues surrounding the blending of this world view with the political realities of the workforce.

9-14. Web sites such as Sporting News (http://aol.sportingnews.com/ncaa-basketball/story/2009-07-29/sporting-news-50-greatest-coaches-all-time) ran a story listing what they called the fifty greatest basketball coaches. Look at this list, and pick out two of the names. Then research these people online to determine what behaviors they exhibited that seem to account for why they were great coaches. How do these behaviors compare with what this chapter had to say about effective coaching? Student conclusions should accurately reflect the concepts in this chapter on coaching.

Students can find the following assisted-graded writing questions at mymanagementlab.com:

9-15. Why is it important to manage employee dismissals properly?

9-16. What are the main decisions employers should address in reaching promotion decisions?

APPLICATION EXERCISES

HR in Action Case Incident 1: Google Reacts

9-17. Without doing any further research than what you learned in this chapter, what other steps would you suggest Google take to improve employee retention? Student answers will vary and the major points should include retention strategies, how to foster engagement, career management, improving coaching skills, and making promotion decisions.

9-18. Was there any information in previous chapters of this book that would help to illustrate other steps Google took to improve retention? Look for students to pull information from previous chapters (e.g. the selection chapter).

9-19. Use other Internet sources, including Google.com, to finalize an answer to the question. What other steps should Google take to improve employee retention? Student answers will vary depending on the Web sites they use.

HR in Action Case Incident 2: Carter Cleaning Company: The Career Planning Program

9-20. What would be the advantages to Carter Cleaning Company of setting up such a career planning program? Some examples of the advantages of setting up a career planning program for employees include increasing job satisfaction, helping employees navigate through the company, and helping employees think about and plan their careers.

9-21. Who should participate in the program, and why? All employees? Selected employees? Students should justify why they think certain employees should or should not participate in the program.

9-22. Outline and describe the program you would propose for the cleaners, pressers, counter people, and managers at the Carter Cleaning Company. Based on the career planning activities discussed in the chapter, students should design a tailored career planning and development program for the employees.

Experiential Exercise: Where Am I Going….. and Why?

Purpose: The purpose of this exercise is to provide you with experience in analyzing your career preferences.

Required Understanding: Students should be thoroughly familiar with the section “The Employee’s Role in Career Management” in this chapter, as well as using O*Net (which we discussed in Chapter 4), and this chapter’s appendix.

How to Set Up the Exercise/Instruction: Using O*Net and our section titled “The Employee’s Role in Career Management,” and this chapter’s appendix, analyze your career-related inclinations (you can also take the self-directed search for about $10 at www.self-directedsearch.com). Based on this analysis, answer the following questions (if you wish, you may do this analysis in teams of three or four students).

9-23. What does your research suggest to you about what would be your preferable occupational options?

9-24. What are the prospects for these occupations?

9-25. Given these prospects and your own occupational inclinations, outline a brief, one-page career plan for yourself, including current occupational inclinations, career goals, and an action plan listing four or five development steps you will need to take in order to get from where you are now career-wise to where you want to be, based on your career goals.

This exercise asks students to analyze their careers. They have to determine their career interests, examine the prospects of that career, and write a one-page career plan. If they have a resume (or can prepare a simple one) they should be encouraged to use it in this exercise. Further, there are supporting documents (e.g., MBTI, 16PF, etc.) that can help them determine their career interests. Finally, O*NET has extensive descriptions of jobs on their Web site, www.onetonline.org.

WEB-e’s (WEB EXERCISES)

1. Recently, several top managers including one from IBM and a consultant for McKinsey & Co. became embroiled in an alleged insider trading scandal. Based on sites such as http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/rajaratnams-llegedinsider-trading-scheme-big-thought/story?id=9502787, do you think these allegations are fair, and if so, what seems to have prompted these people to have become involved? From the information that was supplied on the Web site, the allegations do appear to be fair. It does appear that the individuals involved did engage in activities that warranted further investigation and scrutiny.

2. Web sites such as http://www.bankersacademy.com/codeofconduct.php describe ethics training programs. What points from this chapter does this particular ethics training program cover, and is it one you would recommend to your employer? Why or why not? The program addresses the basics of organizational ethics. This type of program would be recommended to most organizations. It appears to cover all the aspects of organizational ethics in a format that most employees would easily understand.

3. In politics, ethics problems are certainly not unique to Democrats or Republicans. Use sites such as www.newsweek.com/id/216687 to list five recent ethics violations allegations made against Democrats and Republicans. Student responses will vary but should include allegations of corruption, kickbacks, misappropriations of taxpayer funds, misuse of campaign funds, and inappropriate lobbying.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS

1. Ask students to calculate the cost of turnover for an entry-level job. Students will understand the importance of retention initiatives if they know how much turnover can cost a company. Utilize an online turnover calculator, or a worksheet such as one developed by the Society for Human Resource Management (http://www.shrm.org/templatestools/samples/hrforms/articles/pages/1cms_011163.aspx) to allow students to estimate the cost of turnover for a minimum wage job.

2. Ask students to compare and contrast coaching and mentoring. Coaching is focused on more short-term guidance to help an employee do his or her job. Mentoring is focused more on long-term development of an employee. Students should be able to identify coaches and mentors they have had at jobs or in life. Discuss the importance of seeking mentors for students’ long-term career success. You can also explore formal mentoring programs that an employer can establish.

中国经济管理大学

中国经济管理大学官网：www.eauc.hk 中国经济管理大学 MBA公益课堂

中国经济管理大学 MOOC（慕课站）美华管理传播网：www.mhjy.net

Integrated Marketing Communication: Personal Selling and Direct Marketing

Mon, 06 Jul 2026 14:12:05 +0800

中国经济管理大学 MBA 课堂笔记

Integrated Marketing Communication: Personal Selling and Direct Marketing

中国经济管理大学/中國經濟管理大學

Integrated Marketing Communication:

Personal Selling and Direct Marketing

Previewing the Concepts: Chapter Objectives

1. Discuss the role of a company’s salespeople in creating value for customers and building customer relationships.

2. Identify and explain the six major sales force management steps.

3. Discuss the personal selling process, distinguishing between transaction-oriented marketing and relationship marketing.

4. Define direct marketing and discuss its benefits to customers and competitors.

5. Identify and discuss the major forms of direct marketing.

Just the Basics

Chapter Overview

This chapter continues the discussion of communication methods begun in Chapter 12. It focuses on personal selling and direct marketing. Personal selling is the interpersonal arm of marketing communications in which the sales force interacts with customers and prospects to make sales and build relationships. Direct marketing consists of direct connections with carefully targeted consumers to both obtain an immediate response and cultivate lasting customer relationships.

Selling is one of the oldest professions in the world. Today, most salespeople are well-educated, well-trained professionals who work to build and maintain longer-term customer relationships. They listen to their customers, assess customer needs, and organize the company’s efforts to solve customer problems. The sales force serves as a critical link between a company and its customers.

A sales force can be organized such that it has a territorial structure. In this structure, each salesperson is assigned to an exclusive geographic area and sells the company’s full line of products or services to all customers in that territory. A product sales force structure is one in which the sales force sells along product lines. In a customer sales force structure, the sales force is organized along customer or industry lines. Many companies, particularly those that sell a wide variety of products to many types of customers over a broad geographic area, use a complex sales force structure that combines several types.

Personal selling consists of a seven-step process. The first is prospecting and qualifying, followed by the preapproach, approach, presentation, handling objections, closing, and follow-up. All of this should lead to long-term customer relationships.

Direct marketing consists of direct connections with carefully targeted individual consumers to both obtain an immediate response and cultivate lasting customer relationships. Most companies still use direct marketing as a supplementary channel or medium for marketing their goods. However, for many companies today, direct marketing is more than that—it constitutes a new and complete model for doing business.

Effective direct marketing begins with a good customer database. This database is an organized collection of comprehensive data about individual customers or prospects, including geographic, demographic, psychographic, and behavioral data. The database can be used to locate good potential customers, tailor products and services to the special needs of targeted consumers, and maintain long-term customer relationships.

There are several forms of direct marketing, including telephone marketing, direct mail marketing, catalog marketing, direct response television marketing, and kiosk marketing. A very powerful approach for many companies is integrated direct marketing, which involves using carefully coordinated multiple-media, multiple-stage campaigns.

Direct marketers and their customers usually enjoy mutually rewarding relationships. Sometimes, however, a darker side emerges. The aggressive and sometimes shady tactics of a few direct marketers can bother or harm consumers, giving the entire industry a black eye. Direct marketers know that, left untended, such problems will lead to increasingly negative consumer attitudes, lower response rates, and calls for more restrictive state and federal legislation.

Chapter Outline

1. Introduction

a. A stereotype of a salesperson is one of a fast-talking, ever-smiling peddler who travels his territory foisting his wares on reluctant customers.

b. Today, most professional salespeople are well-educated, well-trained men and women who work to build long-term, value-producing relationships with their customers.

c. Lear Corporation is one of the largest, fastest-growing automotive suppliers in the world. It attributes its success to many factors, including its 145-person sales force.

d. Lear’s limited customer base, consisting of only a few dozen customers in all, allows Lear’s sales teams to get very close to their customers. Lear often locates its sales offices in customers’ plants.

2. Personal Selling

a. Sales forces are found not only in business organizations that sell products and services, but also in many other kinds of organizations.

1. Colleges use recruiters to attract new students.

2. Churches use membership committees to attract new members.

3. Hospitals and museums use fund-raisers to contact donors and raise money.

4. The U.S. Postal Service uses a sales force to sell Express Mail and other services to corporate customers.

Applying the Concept

Do student groups on campus have a sales force? How do they gain new members considering that one-quarter of them leave every year?

The Nature of Personal Selling

b. The people who do the selling go by many names: salespeople, sales representative, account executive, sales consultants, sales engineers, agents, district managers, marketing representatives, and account develop-ment reps are a few of the names.

c. The term salesperson covers a wide range of positions.

1. At one extreme, a salesperson might be largely an order taker, such as the department store salesperson standing behind the counter.

2. At the other extreme are order getters, whose positions demand the creative selling of products and services.

Use Key Term Salesperson here.

The Role of the Sales Force

d. Personal selling is the interpersonal arm of the promotion mix. It involves two-way, personal communication between salespeople and individual customers.

1. It can be more effective than advertising in more complex selling situations.

2. The sales force serves as a critical link between a company and its customers.

a. They represent the company to customers.

b. The salespeople also represent customers to the company, acting inside the firm as champions of customers’ interests and managing the buyer-seller relationship.

3. Salespeople need to be concerned with more than just producing sales—they should work with others in the company to produce customer satisfaction and company profit.

Use Key Term Sales Force Management here.

Use Chapter Objectives 1 here.

Use Discussing the Issues 1 here.

3. Managing the Sales Force

a. Sales force management is the analysis, planning, implementation, and control of sales force activities. The major sales force management decisions are shown in Figure 13-1.

Use Chapter Objectives 2 here.

Use Figure 13-1 here.

Designing Sales Force Strategy and Structure

b. A company can divide sales responsibilities along any of several lines.

1. In the territorial sales force structure, each salesperson is assigned to an exclusive geographic area and sells the company’s full line of products or services to all customers in that territory.

a. This organization clearly defines each salesperson’s job and fixes accountability.

b. This sales method increases the salesperson’s desire to build local business relationships that improve selling effectiveness.

c. This type of organization is often supported by many levels of sales management positions.

2. In the product sales force structure, the sales force sells along product lines.

a. The product structure can lead to problems if a single large customer buys many different company products.

3. In a customer sales force structure, the sales force is organized along customer or industry lines.

a. Separate sales forces may be set up for different industries, for serving current customers versus finding new ones, and for major accounts versus regular accounts.

b. Organizing the sales force around customers can help a company to become more customer focused and build closer relationships with important customers.

4. A complex sales force structure is often used when a company sells a wide variety of products to many types of customers over a broad geographic area.

a. Salespeople can be specialized by customer and territory, by product and territory, by product and customers, or by territory, product, and customer.

b. No single structure is best for all companies and all situations.

Use Key Terms Territorial Sales Force Structure, Product Sales Force Structure, and Customer Sales Force Structure here.

Use Discussing the Issues 2 here.

c. Once the company has set its structure, it is ready to consider sales force size.

1. Many companies use some form of workload approach to set sales force size.

a. Using this approach, a company first groups accounts into different classes according to size, account status, or other factors that relate to the amount of effort required to maintain them.

b. The company then determines the number of salespeople needed to call on each class of accounts the desired number of times.

Applying the Concept

What components of a salesperson’s day go into calculating his or her workload? List the components and estimate the amount of time a salesperson located in New York City, who can walk or take the subway to each client, will spend doing each task.

d. Sales management must also decide who will be involved in the selling effort and how various sales and sales support people will work together.

1. The company may have an outside sales force, an inside sales force, or both.

a. Outside salespeople travel to call on customers.

b. Inside salespeople conduct business from their offices via telephone or visits from prospective buyers.

c. Inside salespeople include support people, sales assistants, and telemarketers.

Use Key Terms Outside Sales Force, Inside Sales Force here.

Use Marketing at Work 13-1 here.

2. Most companies are now using team selling to service large, complex accounts.

a. Teams might include experts from any area or level of the selling firm, including sales, marketing, technical and support services, R&D, engineering, operations, finance, and others.

b. The move to team selling mirrors similar changes in customers’ buying organizations.

c. Team selling does have some pitfalls. Selling teams can confuse or overwhelm customers who are used to working with only one salesperson. Salespeople who are used to having customers all to themselves may have trouble learning to work with and trust others on a team. Difficulties in evaluating individual contributions to the team selling effort can create some compensation issues.

Use Key Term Team Selling here.

Recruiting and Selecting Salespeople

e. At the heart of any successful sales force operation is the recruitment and selection of good salespeople.

f. According to the Gallup Management Consulting Group’s research, the best salespeople possess four key talents: intrinsic motivation, disciplined work style, the ability to close sales, and the ability to build relationships with customers.

g. When recruiting, companies should analyze the sales job itself and the characteristics of its most successful salespeople to identify the traits needed by a successful salesperson in their industry.

h. Recruiting will attract many applicants from whom the company must select the best.

i. The selection process can vary from a single informal interview to lengthy testing and interviewing.

1. Many companies give formal tests to sales applicants.

2. Tests typically measure sales aptitude, analytical and organiza-tional skills, personality traits, and other characteristics.

Use Application Questions 1 here.

Use Focus on Ethics here.

Training Salespeople

j. New salespeople may spend anywhere from a few weeks or months to a year or more in training.

k. The average initial training period is 4 months. Then, most companies provide continuing sales training via seminars, sales meetings, and the web throughout the salesperson’s career.

l. Training programs have several goals.

1. Salespeople need to know and identify with the company, so most training programs begin by describing the company’s history and objectives, its organization, its financial structure and facilities, and its chief products and markets.

2. Salespeople also need to know customers’ and competitors’ characteristics, so the training program teaches them about competitors’ strategies and about different types of customers and their needs, buying motives, and buying habits.

3. Because salespeople must know how to make effective presenta-tions, they are trained in the principles of selling.

4. Finally, salespeople need to understand field procedures and responsibilities.

Compensating Salespeople

m. Compensation is made up of several elements: a fixed amount, a variable amount, expenses, and fringe benefits.

1. The fixed amount, usually a salary, gives the salesperson some stable income.

2. The variable amount, which might be commissions or bonuses based on sales performance, rewards the salesperson for greater effort.

3. Expense allowances, which repay salespeople for job-related expenses, let salespeople undertake needed and desirable selling efforts.

4. Fringe benefits, such as paid vacations, sick leave, accident benefits, pensions, and life insurance, enhance job satisfaction.

n. Management must decide what mix of these compensation elements makes the most sense for each sales job.

1. Different combinations of fixed and variable compensation give rise to four basic types of compensation plans.

a. Straight salary.

b. Straight commission.

c. Salary plus bonus.

d. Salary plus commission.

2. Compensation should direct the sales force toward activities that are consistent with overall marketing objectives. Table 13-1 shows an illustration of a compensation plan.

Use Table 13-1 here.

Supervising Salespeople

o. Through supervision, the company directs and motivates the sales force to do a better job.

1. Companies vary in how closely they supervise their salespeople. They use various tools.

a. An annual call plan shows which customers and prospects to call on in which months and which activities to carry out.

b. A time-and-duty analysis could be performed. Figure 13-2 shows how salespeople spend their time.

Use Figure 13-2 here.

2. Many firms have adopted sales force automation systems, computerized sales force operations for more efficient order-entry transactions, improved customer service, and better salesperson decision-making support.

p. Sales managers must also motivate salespeople.

1. Management can boost sales force morale and performance through its organizational climate, sales quotas, and positive incentives.

a. Organizational climate describes the feeling that sales-people have about their opportunities, value, and rewards for good performance.

b. Many companies adopt sales quotas, which are standards stating the amount they should sell and how sales should be divided among the company’s products. Compensation is often related to how well salespeople meet their quotas.

c. Various positive incentives, such as sales meetings, sales contests, and honors, merchandise and cash awards, trips, and profit-sharing, are also used to motivate sales forces.

Use Key Term Sales Quotas here.

Use Under the Hood/Focus on Technology here.

Evaluating Salespeople

q. Management gets information about its salespeople in many ways.

1. Sales reports are weekly or monthly work plans and longer-term territory marketing plans.

2. Call reports are based on salespeople’s completed activities.

3. Expense reports show what salespeople will be partly or wholly repaid.

r. Formal evaluation forces management to develop and communicate clear standards for judging performance.

Use Speed Bump: Linking the Concepts here.

Use Application Questions 2 here.

4. The Personal Selling Process

a. The selling process consists of several steps that the salesperson must master. These steps focus on the goal of getting new customers and obtaining orders from them.

Use Key Term Selling Process here.

Steps in the Selling Process

b. Figure 13-3 shows the selling process consisting of seven steps.

Use Figure 13-3 here.

1. The first step is prospecting, which is identifying qualified potential customers.

a. Salespeople must often approach many prospects to get just a few sales.

b. Although the company supplies some leads, salespeople need skill in finding their own.

c. Salespeople also need to know how to qualify leads—identifying the good ones and screening out the poor ones.

d. Prospects can be qualified by looking at their financial ability, volume of business, special needs, location, and possibilities for growth.

Let’s Discuss This

How would you qualify a prospect for Mary Kay Cosmetics? For a new Dell laptop?

2. The preapproach step is where salespeople learn as much as possible about an organization and its buyers.

a. Salespeople can consult standard industry and online sources, acquaintances, and others to learn about a company.

b. Salespeople should set call objectives, which may be to qualify a prospect, to gather information, or to make an immediate sale.

3. The approach step is where salespeople meet and greet a buyer to get a relationship off to a good start.

a. This step involves salespeople’s appearance, opening lines, and the follow-up remarks.

4. During the presentation step of the selling process, salespeople tell the product “story” to a buyer, presenting customer benefits and showing how the product solves the customer’s problems.

a. The need-satisfaction approach calls for good listening and problem-solving skills.

b. The qualities that buyers dislike most in salespeople include being pushy, late, deceitful, and unprepared or disorganized.

c. The qualities buyers value most include empathy, good listening, honesty, dependability, thoroughness, and follow-through.

5. In handling objections, salespeople should use a positive approach, seek out hidden objections, ask the buyer to clarify any objections, take objections as opportunities to provide more information, and turn the objections into reasons for buying.

6. Closing is the process of getting the order.

a. Salespeople should know how to recognize closing signals from the buyer, including physical actions, comments, and questions.

b. Salespeople can use one of several closing techniques.

i. They can ask for the order.

ii. They can review points of agreement.

iii. They can offer to help write up the order.

iv. They can ask whether the buyer wants this model or that one.

v. They can note that the buyer will lose out if the order is not placed now.

7. The last step in the selling process is follow-up. This is necessary if salespeople want to ensure customer satisfaction and repeat business.

Use Key Terms Prospecting, Preappraoch, Approach, Presentation, Handling Objections, Closing, and Follow-Up here.

Use Discussing the Issues 3 here.

Use Application Questions 3 here.

Personal Selling and Customer Relationship Management

c. The principles of personal selling as just described are transaction- oriented; their aim is to help salespeople close a specific sale with a customer.

d. In many cases, companies want profitable long-term relationships with customers they can win and keep.

e. The sales force usually plays an important role in building and managing profitable customer relationships.

f. Today’s large customers favor suppliers who can sell and deliver a coordinated set of products and services to many locations and who can work closely with customer teams to improve products and processes.

Use Chapter Objectives 3 here.

5. Direct Marketing

a. With the trend toward more narrowly targeted or one-to-one marketing, many companies are adopting direct marketing, either as a primary marketing approach or as a supplement to other approaches.

b. Direct marketing consists of direct connections with carefully targeted individual consumers to both obtain an immediate response and cultivate lasting customer relationships.

Use Key Term Direct Marketing here.

Use Chapter Objectives 4 here.

The New Direct-Marketing Model

c. Most companies still use direct marketing as a supplementary channel or medium for marketing their goods.

d. For many companies today, however, direct marketing is more than just a supplementary channel or medium.

1. Especially in its newest transformation—Internet marketing and e-commerce—direct marketing constitutes a new and complete model for doing business.

2. This new direct model is rapidly changing the way companies think about building relationships with customers.

Use Marketing at Work 13-2 here.

Benefits and Growth of Direct Marketing

e. For buyers, direct marketing is convenient, easy to use, and private.

1. Direct marketing gives buyers ready access to a wealth of products and information, both at home and around the globe.

2. Direct marketing is immediate and interactive—buyers can interact with sellers by phone or on the seller’s website to create exactly the configuration of information, products, or services they desire, and then order them on the spot.

f. For sellers, direct marketing is a powerful tool for building customer relationships.

1. Using database marketing, today’s marketers can target small groups or individual consumers, tailor offers to individual needs, and promote these offers through personalized communications.

2. Direct marketing can be timed to reach prospects at just the right moment.

3. Direct marketing gives access to buyers that the company could not reach through other channels.

4. Direct marketing offers a low-cost, efficient alternative for reaching their markets.

g. As a result of these advantages to both buyers and sellers, direct marketing has become the fastest-growing form of marketing.

Use Discussing the Issues 4 here.

Customer Databases and Direct Marketing

h. A customer database is an organized collection of comprehensive data about individual customers or prospects, including geographic, demo-graphic, psychographic, and behavioral data.

1. The database can be used to locate good potential customers, tailor products and services to the special needs of targeted consumers, and maintain long-term customer relationships.

2. A customer mailing list, in contrast, is simply a set of names, addresses, and telephone numbers.

Use Key Term Customer Database here.

i. Companies use their databases in many ways.

1. They can use a database to identify prospects and generate sales leads by advertising products or offers.

2. They can use a database to deepen customer loyalty.

3. Or they can use the database to profile customers based on previous purchasing and to decide which customers should receive particular offers.

Use Figure 13-4 here.

Use Chapter Objectives 5 here.

Forms of Direct Marketing

j. The major forms of direct marketing are shown in Figure 13-4.

1. Telephone marketing uses the telephone to sell directly to con-sumers and business customers.

a. It has become the major direct-marketing communication tool.

b. Telephone marketing now accounts for more than 39% of all direct-marketing media expenditures and 36% of direct-marketing sales.

c. Marketers use outbound telephone marketing to sell directly to consumers and businesses.

d. Inbound toll-free 800 numbers are used to receive orders from television and print ads, direct mail, or catalogs.

e. Properly designed and targeted telemarketing provides many benefits, including purchasing convenience and increased product and service information.

f. However, the recent explosion in unsolicited telephone marketing has annoyed many consumers.

i. When the FTC opened registration for its “Do Not Call List” in mid-2003, nearly 10 million consumers registered 13 million phone numbers in the first three days.

2. Direct-mail marketing involves sending an offer, announcement, reminder, or other item to a person at a particular address.

a. Using highly selective mailing lists, direct marketers send out millions of mail pieces each year.

b. Direct mail accounts for nearly 23% of all direct-marketing media expenditures and 31% of direct-marketing sales.

c. Direct mail is well suited to direct, one-to-one communi-cation.

d. Direct mail permits high target-market selectivity, can be personalized, is flexible, and allows easy measurement of results.

e. Three new forms of mail delivery have become popular.

i. Fax mail: Marketers now routinely send fax mail announcing special offers, sales, and other events to prospects and customers with fax machines.

ii. Email: Many marketers now send sales announce-ments, offers, product information, and other mes-sages to email addresses.

iii. Voice mail: Some marketers have set up automated programs that exclusively target voice mailboxes and answering machines with prerecorded mes-sages.

Use Marketing at Work 13-3 here.

3. Catalog marketing has grown explosively during the past 25 years.

a. Annual catalog sales are expected to grow to more than $176 billion in 2008.

b. Ninety-seven percent of all catalog companies now present merchandise and take orders over the Internet.

i. Web-based catalogs present some challenges. They are passive and must be marketed. Attracting customers is much more difficult for a Web catalog than for a print catalog.

4. Direct-response television marketing takes one of two major forms.

a. Direct-response advertising is where direct marketers air television spots, often 60 or 120 seconds long, that persuasively describe a product and give customers a toll-free number for ordering.

b. Infomercials are 30-minute advertising programs for a single product.

i. For years, infomercials have been associated with somewhat questionable pitches.

ii. But major corporations have been using info-mercials to sell their wares.

c. With widespread distribution on cable and satellite television, the top three shopping networks combined now reach 248 million homes worldwide, selling more than $4 billion of goods each year.

5. Kiosks are information and ordering machines in stores, airports, and other locations.

Use Key Terms Telephone Marketing, Direct-Mail Marketing, Catalog Marketing, and Direct-Response Television Marketing here.

Use Marketing at Work 13-4 here.

Use Speed Bump: Linking the Concepts here.

Use Discussing the Issues 5 here.

Integrated Direct Marketing

k. Too often, a company’s individual direct-marketing efforts are not well integrated with one another or with elements of its marketing and promotion mixes.

l. Integrated direct marketing is a power approach that involves using coordinated multiple-media, multiple-stage campaigns.

Use Key Term Integrated Direct Marketing here.

Use Figure 13-5 here.

Public Policy and Ethical Issues in Direct Marketing

m. The aggressive and sometimes shady tactics of a few direct marketers can bother or harm consumers, giving the industry a black eye.

n. Direct-marketing excesses sometimes annoy or offend consumers.

1. Dinner-time or late-night phone calls are especially bothersome.

2. So-called heat merchants design mailers and write copy intended to mislead buyers.

3. Some direct marketers pretend to be conducting research surveys when they are actually asking leading questions to screen or persuade customers.

o. Invasion of privacy is perhaps the toughest public policy issue now confronting the direct-marketing industry.

1. It seems that almost every time consumers enter a sweepstakes, apply for a credit card, take out a magazine subscription, or order products by mail, telephone, or the Internet, their names are entered into some company’s already bulging database.

2. Although consumers often benefit from database marketing, many critics worry that marketers may know too much about consumers’ lives.

p. The direct marketing industry is addressing issues of ethics and public policy.

1. Direct marketers know that, left untended, such problems will lead to increasingly negative consumer attitudes, lower response rates, and calls for more restrictive state and federal legislation.

2. Most direct marketers want the same things that consumers want: honest and well-designed marketing offers targeted only toward consumers who will appreciate and respond to them.

Travel Log

Discussing the Issues

1. What is meant by “personal selling is the interpersonal arm of the promotion mix”? What advantages and disadvantages does the personal selling function have relative to advertising in convincing consumers to make a purchase?

Advertising consists of one-way, nonpersonal communication with target consumer groups. In contrast, personal selling involves two-way, personal communication between salespeople and individual customers—whether face-to-face, by telephone, through video or web conferences, or by other means. Personal selling can be more effective than advertising in more complex selling situations. Salespeople can probe customers to learn more about their problems, then adjust the marketing offer to fit the special needs of each customer and negotiate terms of sale. They can build long-term personal relationships with key decision makers.

2. Compare and contrast a territorial sales force structure, a product sales force structure, and a customer sales force structure. Under what circumstances might a company want to use each one?

In the territorial sales force structure, each salesperson is assigned to an exclusive geographic area and sells the company’s full line of products or services to all customers in that territory. Salespeople must know their products—especially when the products are numerous and complex. This need, together with the growth of product management, has led many companies to adopt a product sales force structure, in which the sales force sells along product lines. More and more companies are now using a customer sales force structure, in which they organize the sales force along customer or industry lines. Separate sales forces may be set up for different industries, for serving current customers versus finding new ones, and for major accounts versus regular accounts.

3. In the selling process, the activities that occur before the potential client is contacted are of vital importance. Discuss the role of prospecting, qualifying, and the preapproach activities in making the actual sales presentations more successful.

Prospecting is identifying qualified potential customers. Qualifying is identifying potentially good customers and screening out poor ones. Prospects can be qualified by looking at their financial ability, volume of business, special needs, location, and possibilities for growth. Before calling on a prospect, the salesperson should learn as much as possible about an organization (what it needs, who is involved in the buying) and its buyers (its characteristics and buying styles). This step is known as the preapproach. If these three steps are done correctly, then the salesperson is much more likely to be calling on individuals who need his or her products, and thus has a better chance to ultimately make a sale.

4. Direct marketing is the fastest growing form of marketing. What benefits do buyers and sellers receive from this marketing communications mix element that has led to its growth?

For buyers, direct marketing is convenient, easy to use, and private. Direct marketing gives buyers ready access to a wealth of products and information, both at home and around the globe. Also, direct marketing is immediate and interactive—buyers can interact with sellers by phone or on the seller’s website to create exactly the configuration of information, products, or services the buyer desires, then order them on the spot. For the sellers, direct marketing allows them to target small groups or individual consumers, tailor offers to individual needs, and promote these offers through personalized communications. Direct marketing can also be timed to reach prospects at just the right moment. Direct marketing also gives sellers access to buyers that they could not reach through other channels.

5. Study the direct marketing forms of telephone marketing, direct-mail marketing, catalog marketing, direct-response television marketing, and kiosk marketing presented in this chapter. Identify products or services that would be appropriate for each of these forms of direct marketing. What is it about the products or services you selected that make them appropriate for these forms?

Student responses to this question will vary with the types of products they select. Instructors may wish to point out how the degree to which the customer wants immediate delivery of the product/service, the consumer’s desire to “touch” the product before purchase, and the risk (financial and social) associated with the product may be factors that account for the appropriateness of products for particular forms of direct marketing.

Application Questions

1. In a small group, discuss entry-level sales positions appropriate for someone graduating from college with a marketing degree. Your discussion should include what a typical day would be like for this salesperson and your group should identify the traits an individual should possess to be a successful salesperson in this industry. Write a newspaper advertisement for recruiting an individual for this position.

Be sure that students list the specific attributes they would like the new hire to have in the advertisement. This would also be a good opportunity to review diversity and gender issues related to hiring.

2. Building on the sales position advertisement developed in the prior question, you are now asked to evaluate potential applicants for the job. Each group member should bring a resume to class with the individual’s name removed. The group should then discuss what they will look for in a job candidate’s resume that will allow them to screen for the traits they discussed in the development of the advertisement. The group should then review the resumes and select the top two candidates they would invite to interview.

Another twist for this exercise is to bring in a sales manager as a guest speaker and have the sales manager perform the same task and then debrief with the students. For more ideas on this type of exercise see “An Experiential Exercise for Enlightening Sales Students about the Screening and Selection Process for Sales Jobs” by James G. Lollar, Thomas W. Leigh in the Journal of Marketing Education, Volume 17, Number 3, Fall 1995.

3. Select a product with which you are familiar and conduct a sales presenta-tion/demonstration. Pair with another student and take turns role-playing the “salesperson” and the “prospect.” The salesperson should tell the product story to the prospect, present customer benefits, and show how the product solves the customer’s problems. The prospect should raise objections to the sale so that the salesperson can practice handling objections. The selling role-play should end with the salesperson attempting to close the sale. Several other students can observe the interaction and offer a critique of the salesperson.

Instructors may also desire to have the role play interaction videotaped and later go back with the entire class to critique the positive actions and improve the poorer performances. Alternatively, students might be asked to develop two tapes, one showing a poor salesperson-client interaction and the other showing a good one.

Under the Hood/Focus on Technology

Many companies offer sales force automation products to assist salespeople in managing their clients. Visit the websites of these three sales force automation vendors (www.salesforce.com, www.avantgo.com/frontdoor/corpfrontdoor.html, and www.upshot.com), and read about their products. Next respond to the following questions.

1. What activities can sales force automation products help salespeople perform better?

Students are likely to respond with scheduling tasks, keeping track of where the client is in the decision-making process, knowing what the customer has purchased in the past, and keeping track of personal information about specific clients (e.g., favorite food, birthday, etc.).

2. What kinds of questions would you ask a sales force automation vendor if you were in charge of purchasing a system for your company?

Cost versus benefit questions would be appropriate. The company purchasing the automation system will want to know how revenues will increase as a result of using this system and how long it will take to recoup the cost of the investment.

3. What concerns might salespeople have to their company implementing a new sales force automation tool? What could be done to overcome these objections?

Salespeople may be used to doing things the “old” way and be reluctant to embrace new technology, especially if they don’t see any immediate benefit to the added time they are now giving to entering information into the system. Having a successful salesperson act as a champion for the new system may help win over other salespeople. Of course, adequate training and support must be provided to make sure the system is being used to its fullest potential.

Focus on Ethics

Recruitment and selection are a big part of the sales management function. There are a variety of state and federal laws dictating what a sales manger can and cannot ask an applicant during the job interview. Generally, a sales manager should focus on questions that directly relate to knowing if the job candidate can or cannot perform the functions required of the job. Questions should not be asked that may lead to the potential for discrimination on the basis of age, disability, gender, national origin, race, or religion. Examples of inappropriate questions include: Are you married? How old are you? Where were you born? Do you attend church regularly? Have you ever been arrested? Are you planning on having children? Have you ever filed for bankruptcy?

1. Why are laws in place that make it illegal to ask the types of questions listed above?

These laws protect job applicants from being unfairly denied employment. The fact that an individual will have children, for example, should not disqualify him or her from a job.

2. If you were asked one of these questions in an interview how would you handle it? What response options would you have?

One way to react would be to be defensive and tell the interviewer that the question is inappropriate. However, often times these questions are not asked for the purpose of discrimination, but are more often naively asked as a way to get to know the applicant better. In such cases, getting defensive may harm the chances of the firm hiring the applicant. Students might be advised to try and assess the motivation or reason behind the question being asked and then respond appropriately. One could also choose to deflect the question and answer it only partially.

3. What steps might a sales organization take to help reduce the possibility that inappropriate questions are asked during job interviews?

Firms should provide training and/or information to those involved in the hiring process with regard to the types of questions that should and should not be asked. Role-playing might be a useful exercise in this regard.

Great Ideas

Barriers to Effective Learning

1. The issues surrounding managing the sales force can be difficult for some students. Individually, each of the decisions a sales manager needs to make seem reasonable enough, but bringing them all together to actually plan how to develop and manage the sales force appears complicated to most undergraduates. These issues can be made simpler by going through each of the concepts carefully and thoroughly. You may also want to have the students design their own sales force for a product or service idea they have. This will really drive home the concepts of how you design the sales force, as well as all the management processes.

2. Sales to most students equates to retail sales, a field that many people dislike. Therefore, many students will not be planning on going into sales as a career, and this could cause them to “tune out” during this section. You can bring them back by talking about the nature of selling in various kinds of service firms, such as accounting firms, that many students may be heading toward after graduation. Also, a discussion of the sophistication and professionalism of the salespeople in companies such as IBM and other business-to-business companies can generate some enthusiasm for this important field.

3. The personal selling process will be a surprise to many students, again because they typically think of retail sales, if they’ve thought about sales at all. The importance of all of these steps in the sales process can be highlighted in the discussion of business-to-business sales.

4. Direct marketing is a hot topic these days because of the national Do Not Call list and the recently passed federal legislation on anti-spamming. The students should be able to maintain their interest in this topic, but they may well be surprised that direct marketing is not just for underfunded or shady enterprises. Highlight the section on customer databases to get across the analytics required for successful direct marketing, as well as all the forms of direct marketing listed in the text.

Student Projects

1. Research several companies to decide how their sales forces are structured (i.e., territorial, product, customer, or complex).

2. List and briefly describe the steps in the personal selling process. Which do you think are most difficult? Which step is most critical to successful selling?

3. Analyze your own potential to be a salesperson in your chosen field. List your strengths and weaknesses as they apply to a career in sales. How would you play up your strengths and compensate for your weaknesses?

4. Select one of the direct marketing methods and discuss the decisions that are necessary in developing a strategy for using the method.

Classroom Exercise/Homework Assignment

The Direct Marketing Association (www.the-dma.org) was established in 1917 and is the largest trade association for businesses involved in direct marketing, database marketing, and interactive global marketing. Its membership includes about 4,700 companies in the United States alone.

The DMA provides its members with education, the latest industry knowledge and techniques, representation to both federal and state legislatures, and can even provide some targeted marketing opportunities.

1. Review the website for the DMA. What functions impress you the most? Worry you the most?

Student responses will vary. On the impressive side, the DMA does provide a host of educational services for its members, which could help stem abuses by direct marketers. On the other side, the DMA also argues vociferously for sharing marketing data in the debate over consumer privacy. Although the association has always supported the ability of consumers to “opt-out,, they feel strongly that companies should be able to use the data they collect to their benefit and share the data with others. There is also content on the site that is restricted to members; what might they be trying to hide?

2. The Member Directory for the DMA is restricted. How do you feel about this?

Again, student responses will vary. Some will point out that the vast majority of associations restrict their membership lists. Others will argue that, given the mission of the DMA, it might be helpful for consumers to be able to check to see if a given company is a member, thus giving it a kind of “seal of approval.”

3. When considering purchasing a product from a direct marketing company, would it make a difference to you if that company noted that they were a member of the Direct Marketing Association?

Student responses will vary. Many will point out that any company can claim to be a member, and because you can’t check on the DMA website, you will have no way of knowing if a company really is a member. And if it were, it doesn’t necessarily mean that their business practices are totally on the up and up; it would make more sense to check with the Better Business Bureau. However, others will say that it is at least a step in the right direction, and they will believe that the DMA will police those who say they are members.

Classroom Management Strategies

This chapter continues the discussion begun in Chapter 12; it describes the final two communications methods for integrated marketing communications. Most of the chapter is spent on the sales process, and then direct marketing is discussed.

1. The introduction and Personal Selling section can be covered in 5 minutes. These sections set the stage for the next two sections, and for that reason should not be rushed through.

2. Spend 20 minutes going over the section entitled Managing the Sales Force. This is critical information that the students will need to learn. Figure 13-1 provides an introduction to the steps in sales force management. Marketing at Work 13-1 shows how sales forces are changing with the introduction of new technology. Finally, review Table 13-1 to show the connection between marketing strategy and sales force compensation.

3. The Personal Selling Process can be covered in 15 minutes. Be sure to work with the students to ensure their understanding of each step of the process. Having them team up to “sell” something to other teams is often helpful in this section, ensuring that they “prospect,” develop their preapproach and approach, and then present, close, and follow-up. Figure 13-3 shows the complete selling process.

4. Direct Marketing is a packed section. Spend 20 minutes here, paying particular attention to the subsections on customer databases and the forms of direct marketing. Most students will come into this thinking only of telemarketing calls. Others will have trouble distinguishing between direct marketing and advertising. Marketing at Work 13-2 talks about Dell’s direct process. Because most students are familiar with Dell, this can really help them understand the benefits of direct marketing.

5. Public policy as it relates to direct marketing is ever changing. Have the students investigate the current status of laws and proposals as it pertains to telemarketing and email marketing campaigns, and report back to the class. A discussion of the implication of these laws and proposals will drive home the complexity of the issues.

中国经济管理大学

中国经济管理大学官网：www.eauc.hk 中国经济管理大学 MBA公益课堂

中国经济管理大学 MOOC（慕课站）美华管理传播网：www.mhjy.net

Integrated Marketing Communication: Advertising, Sales Promotion, and Public Relations

Mon, 06 Jul 2026 14:08:41 +0800

中国经济管理大学 MBA 课堂笔记

Integrated Marketing Communication: Advertising, Sales Promotion, and Public Relations

中国经济管理大学/中國經濟管理大學

Integrated Marketing Communication:

Advertising, Sales Promotion, and Public Relations

Previewing the Concepts: Chapter Objectives

1. Discuss the process and advantages of integrated marketing communications.

2. Define the five promotion tools and discuss the factors that must be considered in shaping the overall promotion mix.

3. Describe and discuss the major decisions involved in developing an advertising program.

4. Explain how sales promotion campaigns are developed and implemented.

5. Explain how companies use public relations to communicate with their publics.

Just the Basics

Chapter Overview

This chapter discusses the importance of coordinating the company’s marketing mix components and integrating all the messaging elements into one cohesive unit. A company’s marketing communications mix consists of a specific blend of advertising, sales promotion, public relations, personal selling, and direct-marketing tools that the company uses to pursue its advertising and marketing objectives.

Customers don’t distinguish between message sources the way marketers do. In the consumer’s mind, advertising messages from different media and different promotional approaches all become part of a single message about the company. Conflicting messages from these different sources can result in confused company images and brand positions. The problem is that different communications usually come from different company sources. Under integrated marketing communications, the company carefully integrates and coordinates its many communications channels to deliver a clear, consistent, and compelling message about the organization and its brands.

Integrated marketing communications involves identifying the target audience and shaping a well-coordinated promotional program to elicit the desired audience response. Marketers are moving toward viewing communications as managing the customer relationship over time. Thus, the communications process should start with an audit of all the potential contacts target customers may have with the company and its brands.

The chapter covers each marketing communications and promotion tool in detail, ex-plaining how they are each used, their advantages and disadvantages, and how best to plan each communication as well as the overall process and communications mix. Also described are the factors that influence the marketer’s choice of promotion tools.

Chapter Outline

1. Introduction

a. AFLAC’s ads used to look just like every other insurance company’s ads. In 1999, AFLAC began looking for a better way to build brand awareness and deliver its message to consumers.

b. The company wanted something different that would break through today’s advertising clutter. Someone on the team pointed out that the name of the company sounded like a duck quack, and the rest is history.

c. The campaign was risky, but consumers loved the duck. The company’s name recognition jumped from 13% to 91% in the two years after the start of the campaign. Four out of ten people in the United States not only recognize the name, they can identify AFLAC as a supplemental insurer.

d. Modern marketing calls for more than just developing a great product, pricing it attractively, and making it available to target customers. Companies must communicate with current and prospective customers. All of their communications efforts must be blended into a consistent and coordinated communications program.

2. The Marketing Communications Mix

a. A company’s total marketing communications mix—also called its promotion mix—consists of the specific blend of advertising, sales promotion, public relations, personal selling, and direct-marketing tools that the company uses to pursue its advertising and marketing objectives. Definitions of the five major promotion tools follow:

Use Key Term Marketing Communications Mix here.

Use Chapter Objectives 1 here.

1. Advertising is any paid form of nonpersonal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods, or services by an identified sponsor.

2. Sales promotions are short-term incentives to encourage the purchase or sale of a product or service.

3. Public relations involves building good relations with the com-pany’s various publics by obtaining favorable publicity, building up a good corporate image, and handling or heading off unfavor-able rumors, stories, and events.

4. Personal selling is personal presentation by the firm’s sales force for the purpose of making sales and building customer relation-ships.

5. Direct marketing establishes direct connections with carefully targeted individual consumers to both obtain an immediate response and cultivate lasting customer relationships.

Use Key Terms Advertising, Sales Promotion, Public Relations, Personal Selling, and Direct Marketing here.

Use Chapter Objectives 2 here.

Use Discussing the Issues 1 here.

b. Communication goes beyond these specific promotion tools.

1. The product’s design, its price, the shape and color of its package, and the stores that sell it—all communicate something to buyers.

2. Although the promotion mix is the company’s primary communi-cation activity, the entire marketing mix—promotion and product, price, and place—must be coordinated for the greatest communi-cation impact.

Applying the Concept

Pick several brands of shampoo, one from the grocery store, one from a salon, and one from a health food store (if available). Discuss how each package design, the stores in which it is sold, its price, and so forth all communicate messages to the consumer. What are those messages?

Integrated Marketing Communications

c. During the past several decades, companies around the world have perfected the art of mass marketing.

d. However, as we move into the twenty-first century, marketing managers face some new marketing communications realities.

The Changing Communications Environment

e. Two major factors are changing the face of today’s marketing communi-cations.

1. As mass markets have fragmented, marketers are shifting away from mass marketing. They are developing focused marketing programs designed to build closer relationships with customers in more narrowly defined micromarkets.

2. Vast improvements in information technology are speeding the movement toward segmented marketing. Today’s information technology helps marketers to keep closer track of customer needs.

f. The shift from mass marketing to segmented marketing has had a dramatic impact on marketing communications. The shift toward one-to-one mar-keting is spawning a new generation of more specialized and highly targeted communications efforts.

g. Market fragmentation has resulted in media fragmentation. There has been an explosion of more focused media that better match today’s targeting strategies.

Let’s Discuss This

How many magazines do you subscribe to? What are their topics? Do you read a magazine that applies to your hobbies? To your demographic segment (age, ethnic group, income level)? To your lifestyle (working out, music interest, etc.)?

The Need for Integrated Marketing Communications

h. Customers don’t distinguish between message sources the way marketers do. In the consumer’s mind, advertising messages from different media and different promotional approaches all become part of a single message about the company. Conflicting messages from these different sources can result in confused company images and brand positions.

i. Companies often fail to integrate their various communications channels. Mass-media advertisements say one thing, a price promotion sends a different signal, a product label creates still another message, company sales literature says something altogether different, and the company’s website seems out of sync with everything else.

j. The problem is that these communications often come from different company sources.

k. Under the concept of integrated marketing communications, the company carefully integrates and coordinates its many communications channels to deliver a clear, consistent, and compelling message about the organization and its brands. The concept is illustrated in Figure 12-1.

l. IMC calls for recognizing all contact points where the customer may encounter the company, its products, and its brands. Each brand contact will deliver a message—whether good, bad, or indifferent. The company must strive to deliver a consistent and positive message with each contact.

Use Key Term Integrated Marketing Communications here.

Use Figure 12-1 here.

3. A View of the Communication Process

a. Integrated marketing communications involves identifying the target audience and shaping a well-coordinated promotional campaign to elicit the desired audience response.

b. Marketers are moving toward viewing communications as managing the customer relationship over time. Because customers differ, communica-tions programs need to be developed for specific segments, niches, and even individuals.

c. The communications process should start with an audit of all potential contacts target customers may have with the company and its brands.

4. Setting the Overall Communication Mix

a. The concept of integrated marketing communications suggests that the company must blend the promotion tools carefully into a coordinated promotion mix.

b. The factors that influence the marketer’s choice of promotion tools follow. Each promotion tool has unique characteristics and costs.

1. Advertising can reach masses of geographically dispersed buyers at a low cost per exposure, and it enables the seller to repeat a message many times.

i. Large-scale advertising says something positive about the seller’s size, popularity, and success.

ii. Consumers tend to view advertised products as more legitimate.

iii. Advertising also has shortcomings. Although it reaches people quickly, advertising is impersonal. It can carry on only a one-way communication with the audience, and the audience does not feel that it has to pay attention or respond. It can be very costly.

2. Personal selling is the most effective tool at certain stages of the buying process, particularly in building up buyers’ preferences, convictions, and actions.

i. It involves personal interaction between two or more people, so each person can observe the other’s needs and characteristics and make quick adjustments.

ii. The effective salesperson keeps the customer’s interests at heart in order to build a long-term relationship.

iii. A sales force requires a longer-term commitment than does advertising. Personal selling is the company’s most expen-sive promotion tool.

3. Sales promotion includes a wide assortment of tools. These tools attract consumer attention, offer strong incentives to purchase, and can be used to dramatize product offers and to boost sagging sales.

4. Public relations is very believable.

i. Public relations can reach many prospects who avoid salespeople and advertisement.

ii. A well-thought-out public relations campaign used with other promotion mix elements can be very effective and economical.

5. Direct marketing is nonpublic. The message is normally directed to a specific person.

i. It is immediate and customized.

ii. It is interactive.

c. Marketers can choose from two basic promotion mix strategies. See Figure 12-2.

1. A push strategy involves “pushing” the product through distribu-tion channels to final consumers. The producer directs its market-ing activities toward channel members to induce them to carry the product and to promote it to final consumers.

2. In a pull strategy, the producer directs its marketing activities toward final consumers to induce them to buy the product. Consumers will demand the product from channel members, who will in turn demand it from producers.

Use Key Terms Push Strategy, Pull Strategy here.

Use Figure 12-2 here.

Use Application Questions 2 here.

d. Companies consider many factors when designing their promotion mix strategies, including type of product/market and the product life-cycle stage.

Use Marketing at Work 12-1 here.

5. Advertising

a. Advertising can be traced back to the very beginnings of recorded history.

b. Although advertising is used mostly by business firms, it is also used by a wide range of not-for-profit organizations, professionals, and social agen-cies that advertise their causes to various target publics.

c. Advertising is a good way to inform and persuade.

d. Marketing management must make four important decisions when devel-oping advertising campaign. See Figure 12-3.

Use Figure 12-3 here.

Use Chapter Objectives 3 here.

Setting Advertising Objectives

e. The first step is to set advertising objectives. These objectives should be based on past decisions about the target market, positioning, and marketing mix, which define the job that advertising must do in the total marketing program.

f. An advertising objective is a specific communication task to be accom-plished with a specific target audience during a specific period of time.

Use Key Term Advertising Objective here.

1. Advertising objectives can be classified by primary purpose—whether the aim is to inform, persuade, or remind. Table 12-1 lists examples.

i. Informative advertising is used heavily when introducing a new product category. In this case, the objective is to build primary demand.

ii. Persuasive advertising becomes more important as competition increases. Here, the company’s objective is to build selective demand. Some persuasive advertising becomes comparative advertising, in which a company directly or indirectly compares its brand with one or more other brands.

iii. Reminder advertising is important for mature products—it keeps consumers thinking about the product.

Use Table 12-1 here.

Setting the Advertising Budget

g. After determining its advertising objectives, the company next sets its advertising budget for each product.

h. There are four common methods used to set the total budget for advertising.

1. In the affordable method, the company sets the promotion budget at the level it thinks it can afford.

i. Small businesses often use this method.

ii. This method of setting budgets completely ignores the ef-fects of promotion on sales.

a. It places advertising last among spending priorities.

b. It leads to an uncertain annual promotion budget.

2. In the percentage-of-sales method, the company sets the promotion budget at a certain percentage of current or forecasted sales.

i. There are advantages, because it is simple to use and helps management think about the relationships between pro-motion spending, selling price, and profit per unit.

ii. But this method has little to justify it.

a. It wrongly views sales as the cause of promotion rather than as the result.

b. It is based on availability of funds rather than opportunities.

c. It may prevent increased spending that is sometimes needed to turn around falling sales.

d. Because the budget varies with year-to-year sales, long-range planning is difficult.

e. The method does not provide any basis for choosing a specific percentage, except what has been done in the past or what competitors are doing.

3. In the competitive-parity method, companies set their promotion budget to match competitors’ outlays.

i. Competitors’ budgets represent the collective wisdom of the industry. Spending what competitors spend helps pre-vent promotion wars.

ii. But there are no grounds for believing that the competition has a better idea of what a company should be spending on promotion. And there is no evidence that budgets based on competitive parity really do prevent promotion wars.

4. The most logical budget-setting method is the objective-and-task method. Here, the company sets its promotion budget based on what it wants to accomplish with promotion.

i. This method entails defining specific promotion objectives, determining the tasks needed to achieve these objectives, and estimating the costs of performing these tasks. The sum of these costs is the proposed promotion budget.

ii. This method forces management to spell out its assump-tions about the relationship between dollars spent and pro-motion results.

iii. It is also the most difficult method to use.

Use Key Terms Affordable Method, Percentage-of-Sales Method, and Objective-and-Task Method here.

Use Discussing the Issues 2 here.

Let’s Discuss This

Compare and contrast what happens to an advertising budget when sales are slipping using each budget setting method described.

Developing Advertising Strategy

i. Advertising strategy consists of two major elements: creating advertising messages and selecting advertising media.

j. In the past, companies often viewed media planning secondary to the message-creation process. But media fragmentation, soaring media costs, and more-focused target marketing strategies have promoted the impor-tance of the media-planning function.

k. Good advertising messages are especially important in today’s costly and cluttered advertising environment.

1. With the growth in cable and satellite TV, VCRs, and remote-control units, today’s viewers have many more options. They can avoid ads by watching commercial-free cable channels. They can “zap” commercials by pushing the fast-forward button during taped programs.

2. Many advertisers now see themselves as creating “advertain-ment”—ads that are both persuasive and entertaining.

Use Marketing at Work 12-2 here.

Use Under the Hood/Focus on Technology here.

l. The first step in creating effective advertising messages is to plan a message strategy—to decide what general message will be communicated to consumers.

1. Developing an effective message strategy begins with identifying customer benefits that can be used as advertising appeals. Ideally, advertising message strategy will follow directly from the com-pany’s broader positioning strategy.

2. The next step is to develop a compelling creative concept or “big idea” that will bring the message strategy to life in a distinctive and memorable way.

Applying the Concept

What is Staples’ big idea? Ben & Jerry’s ice cream? T-Mobile wireless service?

3. The creative concept will guide the choice of specific appeals to be used. Advertising appeals should have three characteristics: They should be meaningful, pointing out benefits that make the product more desirable or interesting to consumers; they should be believ-able; and they should be distinctive.

4. The advertiser now has to turn the big idea into an actual ad execution that will capture the target market’s attention and interest. Any message can be presented in different execution styles

i. Slice of life: shows one or more “typical” people using the product in a normal setting.

ii. Lifestyle: shows how a product fits in with a particular lifestyle.

iii. Fantasy: creates a fantasy around the product or its use.

iv. Mood or image: builds a mood or image around the product, such as beauty, love, or serenity.

v. Musical: shows one or more people or cartoon characters singing about the product.

vi. Personality symbol: creates a character that represents the product.

vii. Technical expertise: shows the company’s expertise in making the product.

viii. Scientific evidence: presents survey or scientific evidence that the brand is better or better liked than one or more other brands.

ix. Testimonial evidence or endorsement: features a highly believable or likable source endorsing the product.

Use Application Questions 1 here.

5. The advertiser must also choose a tone for the ad.

6. The advertiser must use memorable and attention-getting words in the ad.

7. Format elements make a difference in an ad’s impact as well as its cost.

i. The illustration is the first thing the reader notices.

ii. The headline must effectively entice the right people to read the copy.

iii. The copy—the main block of text in the ad—must be simple but strong and convincing.

iv. These three elements must work together effectively.

m. The major steps in media selection are deciding on reach, frequency, and impact; choosing among major media types; selecting specific media vehicles; and deciding on media timing.

1. Reach is a measure of the percentage of people in the target market who are exposed to the ad campaign during a given period of time. Frequency is a measure of how many times the average person in the target market is exposed to the message. Media impact is the qualitative value of a message exposure through a given medium.

2. The media planner has to know the reach, frequency, and impact of each of the major media types. Table 12-2 summarizes the media types.

Use Table 12-2 here.

Use Discussing the Issues 3 here.

i. Media planners consider many factors when making their media choices.

a. The media habits of target consumers.

b. The nature of the product.

c. The different types of messages.

d. Cost is another major factor. Media impact and cost must be reexamined regularly.

Use Marketing at Work 12-3 here.

3. The media planner must now choose the best media vehicles—specific media within each general media type.

i. Media planners must compute the cost per thousand persons reach by a vehicle.

ii. The media planner must also consider the costs of producing ads for the different media.

iii. In selecting media vehicles, the media planner must balance media cost measures against several media impact factors.

4. The advertiser must also decide how to schedule the advertising over the course of a year. The advertiser also has to choose the pattern of the ads.

i. Continuity means scheduling ads evenly within a given period.

ii. Pulsing means scheduling ads unevenly over a given time period.

Let’s Discuss This

How are ads scheduled for Chia Pets? How does J.C. Penney schedule its ads?

Evaluating Advertising

n. The advertising program should regularly evaluate both the communi-cation effects and the sales effects of advertising.

1. Measuring the communication effects of an ad—copy testing—tells whether the ad is communicating well. Copy testing can be done before or after an ad is printed or broadcast.

2. The sales effects of advertising are often harder to measure than the communication effects. Sales are affected by many factors besides advertising, such as product features, price, and avail-ability.

Use Application Questions 3 here.

Other Advertising Considerations

o. The company must address two additional questions. First, how will the company organize its advertising function? Second, how will the company adapt its advertising strategies and programs to the complexities of inter-national markets?

1. Different companies organize in different ways to handle adver-tising.

i. In small companies, advertising might be handled by some-one in the sales department.

ii. Large companies set up advertising departments whose job it is to set the advertising budget, work with the ad agency, and handle advertising not done by the agency.

iii. Advertising agencies employ specialists who can often perform advertising tasks better than can the company’s own staff.

a. Most large advertising agencies have the staff and resources to handle all phases of an advertising campaign for its clients, from creating a marketing plan to developing ad campaigns and preparing, placing, and evaluating ads.

Use Key Term Advertising Agency here.

2. International advertisers face many complexities not encountered by domestic advertisers.

i. The most basic issue concerns the degree to which global advertising should be adapted to the unique characteristics of markets in various countries.

a. Standardization produces many benefits—lower advertising costs, greater global advertising coordi-nation, and a more consistent worldwide image.

b. There are also drawbacks. It ignores the facts that country markets differ greatly in their cultures, demographics, and economic conditions.

ii. Global advertisers face several special problems.

a. Advertising media costs and availability differ vastly from country to country.

b. Countries also differ in the extent to which they regulate advertising practices.

iii. Although advertisers may develop global strategies to guide their overall advertising efforts, specific advertising programs must usually be adapted to meet local cultures and customers, media characteristics, and advertising regu-lations.

Use Speed Bump: Linking the Concepts here.

6. Sales Promotion

a. Sales promotion consists of short-term incentives to encourage the purchase or sales of a product or service.

b. Whereas advertising and personal selling offer reasons to buy a product or service, sales promotion offers reasons to buy now.

Use Chapter Objectives 4 here.

Rapid Growth of Sales Promotion

c. Sales promotion tools are used by most organizations, including manufacturers, distributors, retailers, trade associations, and not-for-profit institutions.

d. They are targeted toward final buyers, retailers, and wholesalers; business customers; and members of the sales force.

e. Several factors have contributed to the rapid growth of sales promotions.

1. Inside the company, product managers face greater pressures to increase their current sales, and promotion is viewed as an effective short-run sales tool.

2. Externally, the company faces more competition and competing brands are less differentiated.

3. Advertising efficiency has declined because of rising costs, media clutter, and legal restraints.

4. Consumers have become more deal-oriented, and ever-larger retailers are demanding more deals from manufacturers.

f. The growing use of sales promotion has resulted in promotion clutter, similar to advertising clutter.

Sales Promotion Objectives

g. Sales promotion objectives vary widely.

1. Sellers may use consumer promotions to increase short-term sales or to help build long-term market share.

2. Objectives for trade promotions include getting retailers to carry new items and more inventory, getting them to advertise the product and give it more shelf space, and getting them to buy ahead.

3. For the sales force, objectives include getting more sales force support for current or new products or getting salespeople to sign up new accounts.

Applying the Concept

Why would a business want to give salespeople incentive to sign up new accounts? Why would they need to gain support for new products?

Major Sales Promotion Tools

h. Many tools can be used to accomplish sales promotion objectives.

1. The main consumer promotion tools include those following:

i. Samples are offers of a trial amount of a product. Sampling is the most effective, but most expensive, way to introduce a new product.

ii. Coupons are certificates that give buyers savings when they purchase specified products.

iii. Cash refund offers (or rebates) are like coupons except that the price reduction occurs after the purchase rather than at the retail outlet. The consumer sends a “proof of purchase” to the manufacturer, who then refunds part of the purchase price by mail.

iv. Price packs (also called cents-off deals) offer consumers savings off the regular price of a product. The reduced prices are marked by the producer directly on the label or package.

v. Premiums are goods offered either free or at low cost as an incentive to buy a product. A premium may come inside the package (in-pack), outside the package (on-pack), or through the mail.

vi. Advertising specialties, also called promotional products, are useful articles imprinted with an advertiser’s name that are given as gifts to consumers.

Use Key Term Advertising Specialty here.

vii. Patronage rewards are cash or other awards offered for the regular use of a certain company’s products or services.

viii. Point-of-purchase (POP) promotions include displays and demonstrations that take place at the point of purchase or sale.

ix. Contests, sweepstakes, and games give consumers the chance to win something.

a. A contest calls for consumers to submit an entry to be judged by a panel that will select the best entries.

b. A game sweepstakes calls for consumers to submit their names for a drawing.

c. A game presents consumers with something every time they buy, which may or may not help them win a prize.

Use Discussing the Issues 4 here.

2. Manufacturers direct more sales promotion dollars toward retailers and wholesalers (78%) than to consumers (22%).

i. Trade promotion can persuade resellers to carry a brand, give it shelf space, promote it in advertising, and push it to consumers.

ii. Manufacturers have several trade promotion tools.

a. Many of the tools used for consumer promotions, such as contests, premiums, and displays, can also be used as trade promotions.

b. A discount is off the list price on each case pur-chased during a stated period of time (also called a price-off, off-invoice, or off-list).

c. An allowance can be offered in return for the retailer’s agreement to feature the manufacturer’s products in some way.

i. An advertising allowance compensates re-tailers for advertising the product.

ii. A display allowance compensates retailers for using special displays.

Use Key Terms Discount, Allowance here.

d. Manufacturers may offer free goods, which are extra cases of merchandise, to resellers who buy a certain quantity or feature a certain flavor or size.

e. Manufacturers may offer push money—cash or gifts to dealers or their sales forces—to “push” the manufacturer’s goods.

f. Manufacturers may give retailers free specialty advertising items that carry the company’s name.

3. Business promotion tools are used to generate business leads, stimulate purchases, reward customers, and motivate salespeople.

i. Business promotion tools include many of the same tools used for consumer or trade promotion.

ii. Many companies and trade associations organize conven-tions and trade shows to promote their products. Firms selling to the industry show their products at the trade show.

iii. A sales contest is a contest for salespeople or dealers to motivate them to increase their sales performance over a given period.

Developing the Sales Promotion Program

i. The marketer must make several other decisions in order to define the full sales promotion program.

1. The marketer must decide on the size of the incentive.

2. The marketer must set conditions for participation.

3. The marketer must decide how to promote and distribute the pro-motion program itself.

4. The marketer must consider the length of the promotion, which is also important.

5. The marketer must also evaluate the program.

j. Consumer research would show the kinds of people who responded to the promotion and what they did after it ended.

1. Surveys can provide information on how many consumers recall the promotion, what they thought of it, how many took advantage of it, and how it affected their buying.

2. Sales promotions can also be evaluated through experiments that vary factors such as incentive value, length, and distribution method.

7. Public Relations

a. Public relations is building good relations with the company’s various publics by obtaining favorable publicity, building up a good corporate image, and handling or heading off unfavorable rumors, stories, and events.

b. Public relations departments may perform any or all of the following functions:

1. Press relations or press agency.

2. Product publicity.

3. Public affairs.

4. Lobbying.

5. Investor relations.

6. Development.

c. Public relations is used to promote products, people, places, ideas, activities, organizations, and even nations.

Use Chapter Objectives 5 here.

Use Discussing the Issues 5 here.

The Role an Impact of Public Relations

d. Public relations can have a strong impact on public awareness at a much lower cost than advertising can.

e. The company does not pay for the space or time in the media. Rather, it pays for a staff to develop and circulate information and to manage events.

f. Public relations is often described as a marketing stepchild because of its limited and scattered use.

Major Public Relations Tools

g. Public relations professionals use several tools.

1. One of the major tools is news. PR professionals find or create favorable news about the company and its products or people.

2. Speeches can also create product and company publicity.

3. Special events range from news conferences, press tours, grand openings, and fun events.

4. Many marketers are now designing buzz marketing campaigns that create excitement and generate favorable word-of-mouth commu-nication for their brands.

Use Marketing at Work 12-4 here.

5. Mobile marketing, traveling promotional tours that bring the brand to consumers, has emerged as an effective way to build one-to-one relationships with targeted consumers.

6. Written materials including annual reports, brochures, articles, and company newsletters and magazines are often produced.

7. Audiovisual materials, such as films, are being used increasingly as communication tools.

8. Corporate identify materials, such as logos, stationery, brochures, signs, business forms, business cards, buildings, uniforms, and company cars and trucks, all become marketing materials.

9. Public service activities can improve public goodwill.

10. A company’s website can be a good public relations vehicle.

h. As with other promotion tools, management should set PR objectives, choose the PR messages and vehicles, implement the PR plan, and evaluate the results.

i. The company’s public relations should be blended smoothly with other promotion activities within the company’s overall integrated marketing communications efforts.

Use Discussing the Issues 6 here.

Use Focus on Ethics here.

Travel Log

Discussing the Issues

1. What are the five major promotional tools? Broadly speaking, what type of objective is each promotional tool best suited to accomplish?

Advertising: Any paid form of nonpersonal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods, or services by an identified sponsor.

Sales promotion: Short‑term incentives to encourage the purchase or sale of a product or service.

Public relations: Building good relations with the company’s various publics by obtaining favorable publicity, building up a good corporate image, and handling or heading off unfavorable rumors, stories, and events.

Personal selling: Personal presentation by the firm’s sales force for the purpose of making sales and building customer relationships.

Direct marketing: Direct connections with carefully targeted individual consumers to both obtain an immediate response and cultivate lasting customer relationships—the use of telephone, mail, fax, email, the Internet, and other tools to communicate directly with specific consumers.

2. Describe the four methods for setting the advertising budget discussed in the text. For each of the four methods, explain why a company might use that method over the other three.

The affordable method involves setting the promotion budget at the level the company thinks it can afford. The company starts with total revenues, deducts operating expenses and capital outlays, and then devotes some portion of the remaining funds to advertising.

For the percentage‑of‑sales method one sets its promotion budget at a certain percentage of current or forecasted sales.

For the competitive‑parity method, the company sets its promotion budget to match competitors’ outlays. The most logical budget-setting method is the objective‑and‑task method, whereby the company sets its promotion budget based on what it wants to accomplish with promotion. This budgeting method entails (1) defining specific promotion objectives, (2) determining the tasks needed to achieve these objectives, and (3) estimating the costs of performing these tasks. The sum of these costs is the proposed promotion budget.

3. Explain how the advertising factors of reach, frequency, and impact will influence consumer awareness of a brand. Is one more important than the others for increasing consumer awareness?

Reach is a measure of the percentage of people in the target market who are exposed to the ad campaign during a given period of time. Frequency is a measure of how many times the average person in the target market is exposed to the message. Media impact is a qualitative value of message exposure through a given medium. In general, the more reach, frequency, and impact the advertiser seeks, the higher the advertising budget will have to be and the higher consumer awareness will be.

4. Consumer promotion tools include samples, coupons, cash refunds, price packs, premiums, advertising specialties, patronage rewards, point-of-purchase displays and demonstrations, and contests, sweepstakes, and games. Describe two of these promotional tools you have received or participated in. How did it impact your purchase decision?

Student response to this question will vary based on the promotional tools they select to describe and their own experiences. Instructors may wish to probe deeper by having students think about why the promotion did or did not influence their purchase decision.

5. Compare and contrast the public relations functions of press relations, product publicity, public affairs, lobbying, investor relations, and development.

Press relations: Creating and placing newsworthy information in the news media to attract attention to a person, product, or service.

Product publicity: Publicizing specific products.

Public affairs: Building and maintaining national or local community relations.

Lobbying: Building and maintaining relations with legislators and government officials to influence legislation and regulation.

Investor relations: Maintaining relationships with shareholders and others in the financial community.

Development: Public relations with donors or members of nonprofit organiza-tions to gain financial or volunteer support.

6. What are some of the likely challenges companies will face when trying to implement an integrated marketing communications program? How might these obstacles be overcome?

The shift from mass marketing to targeted marketing, and the corresponding use of a larger, richer mix of communication channels and promotion tools, poses a problem for marketers and their efforts to implement IMC programs. Messages must be coordinated so that they are communicating a consistent, not conflicting message to the consumer.

Application Questions

1. Find examples of advertisements in magazines that illustrate each of the execution styles presented in this chapter. Present your findings to the class, including a discussion explaining which execution styles you think are most effective for this type of product.

Student responses to this question will vary depending upon the advertisements selected by the students. Instructors may wish to point out that more than one execution style may be present in a given advertisement.

2. Assume that you have recently taken a position in the marketing area for a company manufacturing cellular phones that are capable of taking and transmitting pictures. Your boss has asked you to create a promotional plan that will include both push and pull strategies. Describe the plan and what objectives you hope to accomplish with each component.

Student response will vary. Instructors may wish to point out that most large companies use both push and pull components in their promotional efforts.

3. Identify three advertisements for consumer goods or services (e.g., toothpaste, athletic shoes, insurance, beverages, restaurants, etc.), one from the radio, one from television, and one from a magazine. For each of the three, evaluate the advertising appeal. Specifically, rate each advertisement in terms of the appeals being meaningful, believable, and distinctive from those made for other brands. For those aspects you rated low, how could the advertisement be changed to improve that aspect of the advertising appeal?

Student response will vary depending upon the advertisements selected. Instructors might choose to further explore this question by asking students if changing the media vehicle of the advertisement (i.e., if it was a television or radio ad instead of in a magazine) would impact the meaningfulness, believ-ability, or distinctiveness of the advertisement.

Under the Hood/Focus on Technology

Although not yet as widespread as VCRs or DVDs, personal video recorders (PVRs) have been gaining popularity. However, the biggest names in the PVR industry, TiVo and RelayTV, have come under fire from the television industry for some of the features these new devices are capable of delivering. Perhaps of biggest concern to television executives is the ability of these machines to automatically skip over commercials, which the television industry claims is a violation of copyright laws. This takes consumers one big step beyond simply fast-forwarding through commercials using their VCRs. Because advertising is the primary source of income for television networks, they are justifiably concerned that this automatic channel-skipping technology will damage their ability to sell commercial time, or will at least decrease its value. Indeed, there are competing lawsuits working their way through the legal system with television and movie studios suing to stop this commercial-skipping feature and many users suing to give them the right to do exactly that.

1. Do you feel that PVRs will ultimately change the nature of advertising on broadcast television?

Student responses will vary depending upon their perspective. Instructors may wish to probe deeper into how advertising would change by asking for specific examples to be provided.

2. Whose side are you on in the debate over the automatic commercial-skipping technology? Choose sides and debate the issue.

Student responses will vary. Have students think about the implications for broadcast TV if advertisements are no longer worth as much money to the network. Would this impact the quality of shows produced? Would “free TV” be a thing of the past?

3. Beyond the current strategies discussed in the text, what alternatives might a company pursue to overcome the impact this new technology has on advertising?

As one example, integrating products into the actual television program in the form of product placement could be used instead of the traditional “commercial break” format currently used. A product placement (e.g., the lead character drinking a Pepsi) would still have promotional value to the company, but would not be able to be skipped by the PVR technology.

Focus on Ethics

Straddling the line between advertising and publicity is cause-related marketing, which can be described as linking a company to a social cause or issue for their mutual benefit. Advocates of this approach suggest that it is an effective way of communicating the values of the company while at the same time supporting important social issues. For example, The Kellogg Company sponsors the Hannah Neil World of Children Awards, which provides $100,000 “to honor and recognize those people who make a world of difference in the lives of children across the globe.”

1. When choosing between two products that are equal in all areas, what impact would knowing that one of the firms supports a cause that is meaningful to you have on your purchase decision?

Instructors may want to explore the same question but have the cause not be one that is meaningful or important to the student. Does the purchase influence from the cause-related marketing change?

2. Do companies have a moral responsibility to spend some of their profits assisting causes and issues that are of social value (e.g., funding cancer research, searching for missing children, preventing drug abuse, promoting environmental issues, etc.)?

Student responses are likely to vary depending upon their own philosophical position. Instructors might want to have students consider the place of for-profit companies in the broader context of how a society should function together. Ask who will fund these activities if not the companies?

3. Visit the Kellogg website (www.kelloggs.com/kelloggco) and click the “corporate citizenship” link to learn more about the cause-related activities this company sponsors. Should a company that engages in these types of activities do more to make others aware of its activities? Should the support of activities such as these be considered a form of product promotion?

Have students debate the issue of self-promotion of good deeds. If the company actively publicizes its actions, does it sound like it is being insincere about the giving and is just in it for enhancing its image?

Great Ideas

Barriers to Effective Learning

1. The majority of the textbook has been showing the students how to do each individual function, as it must do to effectively explain the nuances of each of the marketing mix components. This chapter shows how the communications piece of the marketing mix must mesh with the other pieces of the mix, delivering the same message in every medium. The difficulty for the students will lie in the fact that there are so many moving parts to coordinate. Ask students for examples of companies who do it well—Target is one brand whose messaging is always consistent.

2. Some students will need to have explained in detail the differences among the various communication methods outlined in the chapter. Figure 12-1 will help in this regard. Asking students for examples from each channel of communication will also help. Many students will be able to give examples from their parents’ work.

3. Push and pull strategies will be new to the students and can sometimes present some problems. Push, in particular, because it is aimed at channel members, can be difficult for students to comprehend. Discussing this in the context of trade promotions can often help; discuss, in particular, how those special display cases and racks in many retail stores can signal both a promotional item and a push strategy on the part of the producer or manufacturer. Pull is an easier concept to get across—you can ask the students if any of them have, for instance, asked their gym/golf course/high school to carry a certain juice or other item. Or how many of them, or their parents, have asked their doctor about a drug seen advertised on television.

4. There is a tremendous amount of information delivered in only a few pages in the advertising section. The differences among informative, persuasive, and reminder advertising may seem simple to students at first, but these concepts should be studied in some detail to ensure understanding. Again, examples are a tremendous help here.

5. Message execution is also a key concept. Many students will have trouble with the various execution styles and will particularly have difficulty with slice of life versus lifestyle. There could also be difficulty in understanding the difference between fantasy and mood or image. Again, use examples of your own and from the class, as well as those shown in the text.

6. Sales promotions, particularly consumer promotions, will be familiar to students. It is important that they understand the terminology, however. Trade promotion is also fairly simple, although the difference between a discount and an allowance is crucial to understand. Business promotions, as well, will go quickly. You can tie this section back into the push strategy to show how a strategy gets turned into tactics.

7. Public relations is a mystery to almost everyone. There will be some questions regarding the product publicity done by public relations versus that done by a marketing manager, but these questions can be answered by the notion of free, because the vast majority of what PR does is to get the company in the press. One of the examples of masterful public relations the book points out is Johnson & Johnson during the Tylenol product-tampering scare. This example alone is often enough to explain the importance of this communication channel.

Student Projects

1. Find at least two examples of push and pull strategies by manufacturers.

2. Look through newspapers and magazines to find examples of ads that aim to inform, persuade, and remind.

3. Find examples of companies that are offering consumers coupons and rebates. What are the differences? Which are you more likely to use?

4. Discuss the use of special display cases in supermarkets. Are these examples of consumer promotion, trade promotion, or both? Are they effective?

Classroom Exercise/Homework Assignment

Hewlett Packard is a very successful IT solutions provider. It sells to all segments of the market, from consumers to very large businesses. Its tag line is “Invent.” Visit the company’s website at www.hp.com to read through some of the corporate history, as well as to review its products and services. Also take a look at its press releases before answering the following questions.

1. Does HP really focus on Invent in its messaging? Is this an effective positioning strategy for the company?

Students might first be drawn to the “HP labs” section of the website, where naturally everything is about invention. Other students will point out that the amazing width and depth of the HP product line, by its very nature, signifies that the company’s focus is on invention. Still others will go to the “newsroom,” where the majority of press releases are about new technologies.

HP does, therefore, seem to live and breathe “Invent.”

2. How does HP use promotions in its marketing?

There is a link on the HP home page taking the viewer directly to all business and consumer promotions that are available. They generally are running several promotions at once. It will be difficult to find out about trade promotions, but an assignment for students could be to visit various retail outlets that sell HP products (CompUSA, Staples, etc.) to ask managers about HP trade promotions.

3. How does HP use executive speeches and articles on its website?

Only the speeches and articles by Carly Fiorina, the HP CEO, are on the website. The majority of the speeches have to do with corporate social responsibility, a primary concern after the business scandals all over the newspapers. In this regard, her speeches are a great PR tool, but don’t necessarily tie into the “Invent” theme. However, there are several speeches that address technology issues and how HP is inventing the next generation of computing technology.

4. Has HP succeeded in integrating its marketing communications?

Student responses will vary. The majority of the website is focused on the products the company sells (even though HP’s stated strategy in the press is to move into services to become more profitable), and that does point to its tag line. However, a good portion of the public relations pieces on the website spend more time talking about social responsibility.

HP has done a good job of combining its product line with its recent acquisition, Compaq, and thus has taken that step toward integrating its messaging. The company is also working very hard toward global branding for its products and is no longer allowing individual business units to develop their own messaging. So in that regard, HP is doing a fine job in integrating its communications.

Classroom Management Strategies

This chapter is replete with good information. Make sure to keep the focus on integrating all communication channels as you go through the material. As discussed previously in Barriers to Effective Learning, use examples liberally through your discussion to drive home the importance of cohesive marketing messaging.

1. The introductory sections are short and can be covered in 10 minutes. These sections set the stage for the chapter and provide valuable background information so that the remaining material is put into the proper context. Figure 12-1 illustrates the tools in the communication process.

2. Setting the Overall Communication Mix goes through the different communi-cations channels, and 10 minutes should be spent here. Attention should be paid to the push and pull strategies. Figure 12-2 illustrates these two strategies in a very clear format, and Marketing at Work 12-1 talks about push strategies being used by consumer goods companies.

3. The section on Advertising is meaty and should take 15 minutes. There are several subsections here, with the heart of the section in Developing Advertising Strategy. Table 12-1 discusses advertising objectives. The Absolut Vodka ads re-created in the text explain how media placement decisions are made.

4. Sales Promotion should also be given 15 minutes. The Major Tools subsection contains a lot of material and can be the focus of this section.

5. Public relations can be covered in 10 minutes. Be sure to talk in some detail about the different tools PR managers have at their disposal so that the students understand this is not just about getting mentions in the newspapers, even though that is extremely important and one of the key focus points for PR departments. Marketing at Work 12-4 talks about buzz marketing.

6. If time permits, visit websites of those companies popular with students, such as Starbucks and other retail outlets that cater to a young crowd. As a class, critique the companies’ ability to fully integrate their messaging, bringing in examples from personal knowledge and that of the students who have visited these locations.

中国经济管理大学

中国经济管理大学官网：www.eauc.hk 中国经济管理大学 MBA公益课堂

中国经济管理大学 MOOC（慕课站）美华管理传播网：www.mhjy.net

留学香港推荐哪所学府？中国经济管理大学告诉你八所综合实力超强香港学府！

Sat, 20 Jun 2026 15:07:20 +0800

中国经济管理大学 

留学香港推荐哪所学府？

中国经济管理大学告诉你八所综合实力超强香港学府！

中国经济管理大学/中國經濟管理大學

香港不仅是亚洲金融中心，更是国际教育枢纽。

根据2027年QS世界大学排名官方统计，香港高等教育体系整体进步幅度位列亚洲第1、全球第2，更是全球唯一坐拥5所QS世界百强大学的城市。

不仅如此，香港特区政府连年加码支持，全力打造"留学香港"金字招牌，落地"北都大学教育城"等重磅规划，持续吸引全球优秀学生来港就学。

今天为你盘点香港八所知名院校以及各自王牌专业，并列出其国际排名和优势学科，祝你如愿就读自己理想学府和心仪专业，欢迎各位赴港开启留学之旅！

香港优质的高等教育，一直深受不同地方的学生欢迎。在2025/26学年，八所资助大学有超过30,000名非本地学生，来自超过100个国家或地区。为了支持专上教育界继续做大做强，特区政府已把资助专上院校授课课程招收非本地生的上限提升至50%，以及把资助研究院研究课程超额收生自资学额上限增至120%等。

教资会辖下研究资助局（研资局）设有20多个研究资助金、杰出学者和奖学金计划，每年资助超过1,500个新项目，并于去年推出15亿港元的新一轮研究配对补助金计划，今年亦新推行研资局海外研究学者计划，进一步营造蓬勃的科研环境。

特区政府跨部门组成的留学香港专班已全力开展工作，联同各大院校在内地及海外加强推广香港优厚的学术、科研和国际合作资源，并通过增设“一带一路奖学金”等计划，全方位吸引各地杰出人才。

发言人总结说，在国家“十五五”规划的宏伟蓝图下，香港高等教育将迎来前所未有的黄金机遇期。特区政府将继续发挥香港专上教育高度国际化和多元化的独特优势，支持院校打造一流大学和一流学科，深化香港作为国际教育枢纽的角色，在融入国家发展大局的同时，继续面向世界发光发亮。

中国经济管理大学

中国经济管理大学官网：www.eauc.hk 中国经济管理大学 MBA公益课堂

中国经济管理大学 MOOC（慕课站）美华管理传播网：www.mhjy.net

香港特区政府公布《香港企业财资中心发展行动计划》

Thu, 11 Jun 2026 09:19:12 +0800

中国经济管理大学 

香港特区政府公布《香港企业财资中心发展行动计划》

中国经济管理大学/中國經濟管理大學

香港特区政府财经事务及库务局（财库局）局长许正宇公布《香港企业财资中心发展行动计划》。《行动计划》提出针对性策略，加强香港成为跨国企业财资中心主要枢纽的实力，将香港特区政府提升为企业财资中心的主要基地，强化香港“引进来、走出去”的平台角色。

《行动计划》鼓励来自世界各地的跨国企业集中在香港管理资金、配置资产和管控风险.

革新税制：特区政府将革新现行适用于企业财资活动的税务优惠制度，引入更具竞争力的分级制度。措施包括优化现行宽减措施，并增设预审机制。获批的企业财资中心及其关联公司将享有更多税务优惠、更高的税务确定性及更大的合规弹性。特区政府今年内会进行公众咨询，目标是在明年上半年向立法会提交法例修订建议。

持续扩展全面性避免双重课税协定网络：特区政府现时已与57个经济体签订了全面性避免双重课税协定，未来会持续扩展网络，重点联系“一带一路”沿线经济体，让以香港为基地的企业在对外拓展业务时可享有更大税务确定性及避免双重课税。

针对性推广：特区政府会主动出击，进行具针对性的市场推广，战略重点包括内地及亚洲企业，尤其是新经济领域的企业。

人才培训及业界沟通：特区政府将联同业界加强专业人才培训，通过持续的市场教育及专业发展，为行业的长远发展建立优质人才库。同时，特区政府会与业界更紧密沟通，务求充分掌握市场脉搏，为业界提供更全面的支援。

许正宇表示，香港已跃居为全球第一的跨境财富管理中心，更是全球最大的离岸人民币业务中心。香港的金融市场体系成熟稳健且与国际接轨，一直以来为国内外的企业提供全面的金融和专业服务。

他说，在当前国际环境充满不确定性之际，香港正能为跨国企业提供一个“风雨不动安如山”的营商平台，既安全、稳定，也深具可预期性。他鼓励企业把握机遇，善用香港“引进来、走出去”的功能，将资金与业务重心汇聚香港集中管理。

许正宇指出，在国家金融强国建设的大背景下，进一步推动企业财资中心在香港发展正是香港助力国家实施“十五五”规划，积极参与国家扩大高水平对外开放的重要一环。

他表示，《行动计划》为企业财资中心业务在香港发展勾画清晰的路向。财库局与相关部门和业界会共同积极落实《行动计划》，一方面协助企业把握香港的独特金融优势，成为内地企业扬帆出海的“战略母港”，海外企业进驻内地乃至亚洲市场的理想门户，同时推动香港资产管理业进一步发展。

中国经济管理大学

中国经济管理大学官网：www.eauc.hk 中国经济管理大学 MBA公益课堂

中国经济管理大学 MOOC（慕课站）美华管理传播网：www.mhjy.net

中国经济管理大学-中國經濟管理大學

中國經濟管理大學[防貪錦囊]-學校管治及內部監控

中国经济管理大学 MBA课堂笔记：菲利普科特勒《市场营销原理与实践》：定价：理解和获得顾客价值

引例

讨论目标

开始讨论

概览

目标

讲义

中国经济管理大学 MBA课堂笔记：菲利普科特勒《市场营销原理与实践》：吸引消费者和沟通顾客价值：整合营销沟通战略

引例

开始讨论

概览

目标

讲义

讨论问题：

14-18 沃尔沃卡车运用的是哪一种促销组合元素？

14-19 “现场测试”运动怎样展示了整合营销的特点？你如何评价“现场测试”运动的整合效果？

Managing Negotiation Impasses

Managing Negotiation Impasses

Chapter Summary

Labor Relations and Collective Bargaining

KEY TERMS

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

Managing Careers

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

HR in Action Case Incident 2: Carter Cleaning Company: The Career Planning Program

Integrated Marketing Communication: Personal Selling and Direct Marketing

Just the Basics

Focus on Ethics

Integrated Marketing Communication: Advertising, Sales Promotion, and Public Relations

Just the Basics

Focus on Ethics

留学香港推荐哪所学府？中国经济管理大学 告诉你八所综合实力超强香港学府！

香港特区政府公布《香港企业财资中心发展行动计划》

留学香港推荐哪所学府？中国经济管理大学告诉你八所综合实力超强香港学府！